SDM 5001 SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 1.1
SYSTEMS AND SYSTEMS CONCEPTS

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 Origin of the word “Systems”

Root Definition
o from Late Latin
systema
o from Greek systema
o from stem of synistanai
"an arrangement, system"
"organized whole, a whole compounded of parts”
"to place together, organize, form in order”
from syn- "together" + root of histanai “cause to
stand"

Example of Usage of the word

1610
Systemswhole creation, the universe: Solar Systems
1680 animal body as an organized Body
1963 whole: sense of a group of related programs and devices : Systems
computer Computer
System

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 Systems Definitions
Definitions
o A system is a group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements forming
a complex whole (American Heritage Dictionary)

o A system as a combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more

stated purposes (ISO/IEC 15288)

o A system is an interacting combination of elements to accomplish a defined

objective.
These include hardware, software, firmware, people, information, techniques,
facilities, services, and other support elements (INCOSE)

o A system comprises system elements with interactions between them through their
interfaces. A system is enclosed in a system boundary and is surrounded by an
external environment

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 Purpose of a System
Why do we need Systems?

Stated Purpose (intent, objectives or mission) of a system is to provide a solution to

a
problem (nature or man-made) to satsfy user requirements

The System Objectives are a set of goals and constraints that include
o system behavior with beneficial or value-added functions (goals)
o system performance during the system lifetime (goals)
o environment in which the system must perform (constraints)
o cost, schedule, regulations, and legal (constraints)

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 System of Interest
Definition
A system-of-interest (SOI) is a collective set of all elements of any system considered
in
a system lifecycle by the user

It consists of system elements and their interconnections that exist within the
defined
boundary

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 System Elements
Definition
A system element can be hardware, software, data, humans, processes (eg processes for
providing service to users), procedures (eg operator or software instructions), facilities,
materials, and naturally occurring entities (eg water, organisms, minerals, energy), or any
combination. (ISO/IEC 15288:2008)

o Elements of a system may be represented conceptually in symbolic form (abstract systems) or

real objects (concrete systems)

Abstract systems contain only conceptual elements (eg capability systems, process systems)

Concrete systems contain at least two elements that are real objects (eg product systems,
society, information, sofware and physical components)

o System Elements can also be systems (“sub systems”)

in a complex systems

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 System Elements and System Operations

Classificaton of Elements of a
System
System Elements System Operations
Material Elements to provide structure and transformation of materials
Signal Elements to sense and communicate information
Data Elements to interpret, organize, and manipulate information
Energy Elements to provide energy and motion power
Procedural to provide instructions for interaction of elements (sofware)
Elements

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 System Boundary
Definition
A system boundary defined by those relationships which relate to membership of the system
The setting of a boundary and hence the identification of a system is ultimately the choice of the
observer .…
any partcular identification of a system is a human construct used to help make beter sense of a
set of things and to share that understanding with others if needed (SEBOK Part 2)

Closed Systems encloses all aspects of the system exist within this boundary
o no interactions with its environment
o useful for work with abstract systems and for some theoretical system descriptions

Open Systems comprises systems elements and relationships which can be considered part of
the system, and those which describe the interactions across the boundary between system
elements and elements in the environment
o system exchanges inputs and outputs with its environment

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(Ref: 1968, von Bertalanfly (1968) General System theory: Foundatons, Development, Applicatons, New York: George © LGChan
 System Environment
Definition
Anything affectng a subject system or affected by a subject system through interactions with it,
or anything sharing an interpretaton of interactions with a subject system (IEEE 1175.1-2002
(R2007), 3.6)
The surroundings (natural or man-made) in which the system-of-interest is utilized and supported;
or in which the system is being developed, produced or retired (INCOSE 2010)

System Environment is the space, beyond the system boundary, which interacts with the
system
of interest
o Immediate intended effect of the planned
Environment: o Potental system likely impact of the planned
Environment: o Unknown system unintended side effects of the
Environment: system

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System of Interest, System Boundary, System Environments
begin
with the Context of the Use (Stated Purpose)

System of System Boundary

Context of Use
Interest

System Environment
Stated Purpose

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 Stakeholders Resources Controls

Materials
Behavior:
Signal
Materials Signal Products
Data Inputs Outputs
Energy Energy/Data SYSTE Procedure Performanc
e Capability
Procedur M
es

Boundary Standards Regulatons Constraints

ENVIRONMENT

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 System Elements Interactions
Interaction of various elements (materials, energy, data, signals, procedures) will produce new
behavior of a system (emergent behavior)
When certain elements are missing in the system, these elements can be inputed from outside
Example:
o Energy is required to operate a system
o Input data informaton to software systems

Definition
Process is work performed on, or in response to, incoming information or changing conditions
o Process is a system interaction
o “Work Done”

Function is a process that transforms inputs into outputs

o Functon is a system behavior
o A system may have more than one functon depending on the input
o “Ability to Do Work”
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 Interaction at Systems Interfaces
o Systems or subsystems provides some structural relationship of the elements
o Materials or Information are exchanged between the system elements or subsystems
o A function is performed (transfer/transform) across the common interface from one
system to another system
o Stable interface is result of standards (specifications) and specific design (design
rules)

System Interface

Functon: Transfer
Process Process
“Send” “Receive”
Flow Flow
System 1 System 2
Feedback

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 Interactions of a System
Two Types of Interactons

Internal Interactions within the System of Interest

These are Processes performed among system elements which are governed by properties
of
system elements (natural or man-made)

External Interactions with the System Environment

These are inputs or outputs at the system interfaces located at the system boundary

Interactions produce emergent properties and new behavior of a

System System Functions are normally seen as external behavior of a

System
System Processes are internal transformation inside a System 14
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 Systems Interfaces
Interfaces are the points of contact between interacting system elements and other
subsystems
(internal interface) or the environment (external interface) at the system boundaries

o Interfaces embed functions of component parts or subcomponents at the systems

boundary
o An Interface can be physical object (eg USB connector) or
a functional link (eg sofware layer function in Application Programming Interface, API)

o Importance of Systems Interfaces

– hide the complexity of the systems of interest, its systems elements, and interactions of elements
– defines system of interest at its boundary
– specificaton key to assembly/integraton/checkout, maintainability, product evoluton and
adaptability
– potental area of design uncertainty because it depends on the definiton of system of interest,
boundary and environment

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Example: Systems Interfaces of a Computer

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 Example: System Map of a Product

Identify system of interest,

Canon EOS 40D DSLR Camera subsystems
Identify elements, boundaries, interfaces,
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environment
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 System of Systems Representation

Systems
Layers

Systems Plan View

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 System of Systems (SoS)
Definiton
A SoS is an integration of a number of constituent systems which are
independent and operatable, and which are networked together for a
period of time to achieve a certain higher goal (SEBoK)

A SoS is a system-of-interest whose elements are managerially and/or

operationally independent systems. These interoperating and/or integrated
collections of systems produce results unachievable by the individual
systems alone (INCOSE Handbook)

A SoS is a set or arrangement of systems that results when independent

and useful systems are integrated into a larger system that delivers
unique capabilities (US Department of Defense)
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Simple SoS with a finite number of sub-systems and well defined system
boundary
Example:
o Many man made products and manufactured products are simple SoS

Complex SoS with an indefinite number of sub-systems and uncertain system

boundary and environment
Example:
o Socio Technical Systems involving society and technology involving many stakeholders
with complicated requirements
o Natural Systems are mostly complex SoS

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 Sources of Complexity in System of Systems
Integraton Of Components
There are many interrelations between a large number of components (N2 number of
interactions), recursive levels of integration, non linear response

Heterogeneity Of Components
Several specialized fields are involved in the design of a complex system, making it
difficult to keep a unified vision of this system and to manage its overall design

Uncertain Environment Or Unstable Boundaries

Unpredictable performance of the unstable environment may lead to unpredictable
performance, while constantly changing boundaries make it difficult to define the
problem domain, and hence, difficulty to obtain the solution space

Examples: aircraft and automobile design/production, space satellites, electricity power

grid,
transportation, world wide web
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 Propertes of System of Systems (SoS) 1
1 Operatonal and Managerial Independence of the Individual Systems
SoS is composed of systems that are independent and useful in their own ways
SoS sub-systems are capable of independently performing useful operations independently
to
achieve an intended purpose

2 Geographic Distributon
Geographic dispersion of component systems is often large and can readily exchange
only information and knowledge with one another

3 Emergent Behavior
SoS performs functions and carries out purposes that are not necessarily associated with
any
sub-systems

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 Propertes of System of Systems (SoS) 2
4 Evolutionary Development
Development of an SoS is evolves over time
Components of structure, function, and purpose are added, removed, and modified with
experience

5 Self - Organizaton
SoS is dynamic and is able to change in respond to changes in the environment and to changes
in goals and objectives for the SoS

6 Adaptation
SoS is dynamic and able to adapt to external changes and perceptions of the environment

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 Lecture 1.1
Engineering Systems
Definition
An open complex system of technical or socio-technical elements that exhibit
emergent properties not exhibited by the individual system elements (SEBoK)

A class of systems characterized by a high degree of technical complexity, social

intricacy, and
elaborate processes, aimed at fulfilling important functions in society (de Weck)

Properties of Engineering Systems:

o complex and large scale systems
o created by and for people (artficial)
o having a purpose with multple views
o satsfying key stakeholders value propositons (requirements)
o having a life cycle and evolution dynamics
o having a boundary and an external environment
o being a part of a system-of-interest hierarchy
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Ref: de Weck 2011 Engineering Systems-Meetng Human Needs in a Complex Technological World Cambridge MA MIT © LGChan
Examples of Engineering Systems

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 Examples of Engineering Systems
Type Example
Products systems are man made things which automobile, aircraf, security system, data
are developed and delivered to the user with the storage system, airline booking system
required functions for the final user

Services Systems are processes that provides health care, transportation, internet
capability and performance for a user
without necessarily delivering the product
system

Enterprise Systems are purposeful government, military defense, human

combination (network) of interdependent resource, enterprise resource planning
resources in an institution or organization

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A Classification Scheme of Systems Types

System of
Systems

Simple Systems Complex Systems

(fixed boundaries, (changing boundaries,
eg machineries) eg climate )

Small Scale Systems Large Scale Systems

(small scale (large distribution
eg cells, bacteria) eg internet)

Not Man Made

Engineering Systems
Systems
(socio technical impact,
(natural eg eg transportation )
climate, solar
systems

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END OF LECTURE 1.1
SYSTEMS CONCEPTS

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 SDM 5001 SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 1.2
SYSTEMS ARCHIECTURE VS SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

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 System Engineering Definitions
Definitons
o Systems Engineering is a discipline that concentrates on the design and applicaton of
the whole (system) as distinct from the parts

o Systems Engineering is an iterative process of top-down synthesis, development,

operaton of a real-world system that satsfies, in a near optmal manner, the full
range of requirements for the system

o Systems Engineering is an engineering discipline whose responsibility is creatng and

executng an interdisciplinary process to ensure that the customer and stakeholder's
needs are satsfied in a high quality, trustworthy, cost efficient and schedule
compliant manner throughout a system's entre life cycle (INCOSE Handbook)

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 System Engineering Life Cycle
The evoluton of a system, product, service, project or other human-
made
entty from concepton through retrement (ISO/IEC 2008)

Elicitation

Disposal Requirements

Utilize/Maintain Feasibility/Concept

Implement/Tes Analysis/Design
t

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 System Engineering Life Cycle Process 1
Implementation
Concept
Elicitation Analysis Utilization Retirement
Feasibility
Design
Testin
g

System Architecting Stage (Elicitation, Concept, Feasibility)

o determining the system key stakeholders and their desired capabilities
o developing the system concept of operations (ConOps) and business case
(business
plan)
o negotiating the system requirements among the key stakeholders
o performing system analysis of process, and functions in order to illustrate
the compatibility and feasibility of the resulting system definition
o selectng the system non-developmental items (off the shelf purchases)
o developing the system architecture and systems-level life cycle plans

Adapted from ISO15288

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 System Engineering Life Cycle Process 2
Elicitation Concept Analysis Implementation Utilization
Feasibility Design Retirement
Testing

System Analysis and Design Stage

o key stakeholders decide that the
system development elements
o detailed analysis of systems
o technical design of system
components by specialist
disciplines
o engineering specialists to work
closely with system architect
o construction of the
developmental elements
o integration of these with each 5
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 System Engineering Life Cycle Process 3
Implementation
Concept
Elicitation Analysis Utilization Retirement
Feasibility
Design
Testin
g

System Implementation and Testing

o System Implementation involves the construction of system copies or versions
and
production quality monitoring and improvement
o System Testing includes validation and verification of system requirements,
and corrective action for defects

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 System Engineering Life Cycle Process 4
Implementation
Concept
Elicitation Analysis Utilization Retirement
Feasibility
Design
Testin
g

System Utilization Stage

o System Utilization includes use of the system by operators, administrators,
the
general public, or systems above it in the system-of-interest hierarchy
It includes maintenance and support services

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 System Engineering Life Cycle Process 5
Elicitation Concept Analysis Implementation Utilization ment
Feasibility Design Testing Retire

System Retirement Stage (Disposal)

o System versions or elements become obsolete or are no longer economical to
support
o System support is terminated
o Disposal or recycling of their content

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 Systems Architecture Emphasis
Top Down Approach
o Views the system as a whole (holistic approach)

Life Cycle Orientation

o Includes all phases in system design and development, production, testing,
operation,
maintenance, retirement, disposal

System Requirements
o Stakeholders requirements
o Well defined and specified system criteria, and traceability of these requirements

Interdisciplinary
o Team approach of members with specialized skills
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 Systems Architecture vs System Engineering
Difference between Systems Architecting and System Engineering

Systems Architecture is a complex process of creating and building systems

architecture which takes into the viewpoints of various stakeholders, both
technical and social, under constraints imposed by the defined boundary of
the system
An Overall Process

Systems Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical

principles to the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and
economical combinations of interacting elements that accomplish a defined
objective
A Specialised Process

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Optonal Video: Systems Engineer vs System Architect https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWnESjf4a © LGChan
 Systems Architecture vs System Engineering
Characteristics Engineering Architecture Common in both
Architecture &
Understood Engineering
Situaton/Goals Ill-Structured
Optimizaton Satsfaction Constrained
Compliance
Methods Equatons Heuristcs
Analysis Synthesis Art and Science
Science and Art Art and Science
Interfaces Completeness Focus on “Mis-Fits”
Critcal
System Integrity Disciplined Methodology and “Single Mind” Clear Objectves
Maintained Through Process
Management Issues Working for Builder / Working for Client Working for Client
Client Meetng Project Conceptualization and Whole Waterfalls
Requirements Certificaton Confidentality Conflict of Interest
Profit vs Cost

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(Ref: Reichtin Maier (2009) The Art of Systems Architecting 3 edition Boca Raton CRC
rd
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END OF LECTURE 1.2
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

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SDM 5001 SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 1.3
SYSTEMS THINKING

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 Systems Thinking
Definitons
o a discipline for seeing wholes ... a framework for seeing
interrelatonships rather than things ... a process of discovery and
diagnosis ... and as a sensibility for the subtle interconnectedness that
gives living systems their unique character (Senge 2006, pp 68-69)

o Systems thinking is the process of understanding how those things

which may be regarded as systems influence one another within a
complete entty, or larger system (Wikipedia)

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 The Systems Thinking Approach
1. Understand the whole system (holistic thinking)
2. Understand the nature of the problem (requirements, boundary and environment)
3. Understand interconnections between things (interfaces)
4. Understand interrelationships to produce system synergy or disruption (complexity,
system
dynamics)
5. Understand the interrelationships among parts relative to a common purpose of systems
components (modularity)
6. Seeing things from different perspectives (viewpoints)
7. Simplifying systems without losing details (abstraction)
8. Recognizing repeated events and paterns rather than things (heuristics)
9. Optimizing performance of system (architecture platform, trade off study)
10. What will it lead to? (uncertainty, states, use case)

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 Hard and Soft System Thinking Approaches
Hard System Thinking Soft System Thinking
Objective Hard/Well Defined Problem Soft/Ill Structured Fuzzy Problem
Assumptions of System Systematc/Logical World Metaphor/Systemic Mind
Problem Solving Style End Means Participation/Debate/Reform
Process Goal Optimizaton/Satsfaction Learning/Satisfying
Acting Focus Goal Oriented Process Oriented
Applying Methods Positve-Empirical Interpretive-Exploratory
Philosophical Thoughts Reductonist/Do the thing right Holism/Do the right thing
Example Scientfic Analytcal Methods CATWOE method

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(Ref: Pan Valerdi Kang (2013) Systems Thinking-A Comparison between Chinese and Western Approaches Procedia Computer Science 16 pp 1027 – © LGChan
 Heuristics
Definiton
o A heuristc is a common sense rule intended to increase the
probability of solving some problem,
eg a rule of thumb, guideline

o A guideline for architectng, engineering, or design

Lessons learned expressed as a guideline
A natural language abstraction of experience (Reithin Maier
2009)

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 Heuristics
What are the qualites of Heuristcs?
o It is informal or pragmatc approach based on experience and learned knowledge
o It must make sense in the original context and beyond (example: wise sayings)
o It is be easily understood and ratonalized in a few minutes (think proverbs)

Why use Heuristcs ? (Leveraging on Heuristcs)

o More efficient because it saves tme and cost from experimentng what other people
have
done
o Learned from other people successes and mistakes
o Choose from best designs
o Appropriate for socio-technical systems which are complex and cannot be easily
modelled and quantify

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 Heuristics Example 1
Heuristics from Systems Principles (Maier and Rechtn 2000) :

Interacton principle
Relatonships among the elements are what give systems their added value

Leverage principle
Efficiency is inversely proportonal to universality

Parsimony principle*
Manage complicatons and complexity by simplifying

Abstracton principle
In order to understand anything, you must not try to understand
everything (originally from Aristotle)
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*Parsimony (noun) : extremely unwillingness to spend more tme and © LGChan
 Heuristics Example 2
INCOSE Pragmatc Heuristcs Principles
Report on “An Identification of Pragmatic Principles” (INCOSE 1993)

o Know the problem, the customer, and the consumer

o Identfy and assess alternatves so as to converge on a soluton
o Maintain the integrity of the system
o Use effectveness criteria based on needs to make system
decisions
o Establish and manage requirements
o Use an artculated and documented process
o Manage against a plan

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 Tool Kits for Systems Thinking 1
Dynamic Thinking Tools

Behaviour Over Time Diagram

Use to graph behaviour of variables over tme and understand
inter- relatonships between them

Causal Loop Diagram

To be used together with behaviour over time diagram.
To help you to identfy reinforcing R1 (+) and balancing B1
(-) processes

Systems Archetype
Recurring Stories of Cause and Effect

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 Tool Kits for Systems Thinking 2
Computer Based Tools

Computer Modelling
Using computers to stmulate and explore systems behaviour
Agent Based Modelling, Discrete Event Modeling, Systems
Dynamics
Software: Stella, iThink, XMILE, AnyLogic

Management Flight Simulator

Risk Free training for managers using interactve computer
games
based on computer model

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END LECTURE 1.3
SYSTEMS THINKING

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SDM 5001 SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 1.4
SYSTEMS DYNAMICS

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 What is Systems Dynamics?

System dynamics is an approach to understanding behavior of complex non-linear

systems over time, using feedback loops, time delays, stocks and flows that affect the
behavior of the entire system

Mental models are constructed to represent the causal effect mechanics of the
system behavior in the real world

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 Principles of Systems Dynamics
Laws of Fifh Discipline (Senge 1990)
o For every acton, there is a reacton
o Short-term improvements often lead to long term difficulties
o Cause and effect are not necessarily closely related, either in tme or in space
(Sometmes
solutions implemented here and now will have impacts far away at a much later tme)
o The entrety of an issue is often more than the simple aggregaton of the components of
the issue
o The entre system, comprised of the organizaton and its environment, must
be considered together

How to Construct an Ideal Systems Model

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 Components of Stock Flow Diagram
Flow
Material or informaton that enters or leaves a stock over a period of tme
o The speed of flow is flow rate which could be controlled
o Flow is not dependent on previous values of that rate, but dependent on the levels in a system along with
external influences

Stock
An accumulaton of material or informaton that has built up in a system over tme
o Stock can also be a source or sink
o Source represents systems of levels and rates outside the boundary of the model
o Sink is where flows terminate outside the system

Feedback Loop
Mechanism (rule or informaton flow or signal) that allows a change in a stock to affect a flow into or out of
that
same stock
o A closed chain of causal connectons will have a feedback loop because flow from a stock, through a set of
decisions and actions dependent on the level of the stock, and back again through a flow to change the
stock
o An open chain will not have feedback loop
Mechanism for regulatng flow rate by opening (increasing flow) or closing (decreasing 4
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 Principles of Stocks, Flows, and Dynamic Equilibrium
Basic Principles
o A stock is the memory of the history of changing flows within the system
o If the sum of inflows exceeds the sum of outlows, stock level will rise
o If the sum of outflows exceeds the sum of inflows, stock level will fall
o If the sum of outflows equals the sum of inflows, stock level will not
change (dynamic equilibrium)
o A stock can be increased by decreasing its outflow rate AND/OR by increasing
its inflow rate
o Stocks act as delays or buffers or shock absorbers in systems (delays in system)
o A feedback loop is a closed chain of causal connections from a stock and back
again
through a flow to change the stock

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 Feedback in Systems Dynamics
Dynamic equilibrium
The condition in which the state of a stock (its level or its size) is steady
and
unchanging, despite inflows and outflows
This is possible only when all inflows equal all outlows

2 Main Type of Feedbacks

Positive Feedback or Reinforcing Feedback loop
It is an amplifying or enhancing feedback loop which further destabilizes the system
It reinforces by itself the direction of change. These are vicious cycles

Negatve Feedback or Balancing Feedback loop

It is a stabilizing, goal-seeking, self correcting or regulatng feedback loop
It opposes, or reverses, whatever directon of change is imposed on the system
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 Example: Bath Tub Analogy for Dynamic Equilibrium
Goal: To maintain a water level in a bath tub
Controls: Rate of water inflow and rate of water
outlow
Representaton of Stock in Bath Tub at any tme t:

water in tub at time (t) = increase of water in tub (∆t) + (inflow – outfow) *
∆t

rate of water flowing in

Bathtub
water flow out

water flow in
Source Sink

Bath Tub Analogy rate of water flowing

out

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Example: Temperature Control with Feedback

heatng cooling ambient

(tme constant) temperature
Feedback
House
Tem
p temp loss/gain

heatng/cooling
Source Sink

temp loss
(tme constant)

proportonal error signal thermostat

control signal settng

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Demonstration : Temperature Control

http://forio.com/simulate/netsim/temperature-controller/ru
n/

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AN EXERCISE IN SYSTEMS
DYNAMICS

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 STATIC
SYSTEM Time 0 1 2 3 4 5
In Process Out
X2 Input 1 1 1 2 2
Output 2 2 2 4 4

System Element Process: Name 2 things which you learn from this System
- Each Operaton Takes 1
second
- Multply by 2
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5
DYNAMIC SYSTEM
Input 1 1 1 2 2
In Process Out Feedback 0 2 6 14 32
X2 Process 1x2 1x2+ 1x2+ 2x2+ 2x2+
2x2 6x2 14x2 32x2
Final Output 2 6 14 32 68

Each Operaton Takes 1

second There is no delay in
What is this Principle in Systems Concepts? 11
feedback © LGChan
DYNAMIC SYSTEM What is the Boundary of this
System?
In Process Out What is the Functon of this System?
X2 - Amplify/Increase Input to Two Times
X Y
What is the Behaviour or Outcome of this System?
- Output is Twice the Input
System Element Process:
o Each Operaton Takes 1 What Processes are needed to obtain this
second Behaviour/Outcome?
o Multply by 2 - Adding, Multplying, Mixed
o There is no delay in feedback

Process
Yt = 2 X(t-1)
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 DYNAMIC SYSTEM Let us change the Boundary of this
System?
In Process Out What is the System of Systems? What is the
A X X2
Y Subsystem?
What is the Functon of this System?
B - Amplify/Increase Input to ?? Times

System Element Process: What is the Behaviour or Outcome of this System?

o Each Operaton Takes 1
second
o Multply by 2
o There is no delay in feedback
- ?? How do you find out
What Processes are needed to obtain this
Behaviour/Outcome?
- ?? How do you find out/prove

Process
Bt = 2A(t-1) + 2B(t-1)
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 STATIC SYSTEM in
SERIES
In Process Out In Process Out
1 X2 2 X3 6
System 1 System 2

STATIC SYSTEM in
PARALLEL What is this Principle in
In Process Out Systems Concepts?
1 X2 2
System Elements can
System 1 have
8 different processes
In Process Out
1 X3 6
System 2
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 STATIC SYSTEM in SERIES with
FEEDFORWARD

In Process Out In Process Out Out

1 X2 2 X3
6 8
System 1 System 2

What type of behavior uses Feed Learning Points

Forward? 1 Budget Forecastng
2 Producton Planning
3 Scenario Planning
4
5

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 Feedback in Systems Thinking
Systems Thinking employ feedback loops at multiple stages

Feedback is used to ensure that the actual directon corresponds to the

desired
directon

Feedback is the startng point of learning process because it provides for the
detecton of mistakes
o Without learning, similar mistakes are repeated leading to wasted resources
o With learning, individuals and organizations become more efficient and productive

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 System Archetypes
System Archetypes are system structures that produce common patterns of
problematc behaviour across many different types of systems

Archetypes are often called “traps” because they’re extremely common, and
yet
policymakers struggle to identfy them early and deal with them effectively

Queston: Name a system thinking approach that employ system

archetypes
Answer: Heuristcs

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 Two Simple Causal Loop Models of System
Dynamics
Primary Effect in One Feedback
Loop Our decisions alter the
environment leading to new
decisions with feedback loop
Secondary Effect in Two Feedback
Loops Triggering side effects, delayed
reactons, changes in goals and
interventons by others.
These feedbacks may lead to
unantcipated results and
ineffectve policies (Side Effects)
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 More Archetypes of System Dynamics
Reinforcing loop Balancing loop Fixes that backfire
an important variable accelerates Oscillatng around a single target A quick fix soluton can have unintended
up/down, with exponental (with delay), or movement toward a results that make the problem worse.
growth/collapse target (without delay) The problem symptom temporarily
Example: Example: improves and then deteriorates,
Climate change melts ice, reducing the Managing population levels of an worse than before
albedo effect, further warming the endangered specie Example:
planet Negative rebound effects from
effciency
investments

Reinforced
Action

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EXAMPLES

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 Numerical Example: Logistic Map
Logistic Map Equation:
x n+1 = r xn
0 < xn < 1 represents the rato of existng populaton to the maximum possible populaton
o Investgate value of x for r values from 0 to 4
o Demonstraton
(1 - xn)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistc_map

Cubic Map
xt = x3 (t-1) – r x(t-1)

Sinusoid Map
xt = r sin x(t-1)
Final Stable Value of x

Deter
ministc Equaton
but
Unstable

Bifurcaton Diagram
CHA
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OS © LGChan
 What we learned from Chaos and Complex Systems
Chaos System is a non-linear dynamic system
o Non-linear means that due to feedback or multiplicative effects between the
components,
the whole becomes something greater than just adding up the individual parts
o Dynamic means the system changes over time based on its current state

Deterministic systems can produce wildly fluctuating and non-repeating behaviour

Chaos systems
o depend on initial conditions and path dependent
o indicates that there are limits to knowledge and prediction (some futures may be
unknowable)
o have emergent and new behaviors not seen in a deterministic way
o interventions into a system may have unpredictable outcomes even if they initially change
things only slightly, as these effects compound over time

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What of Feedback is present in the Human Body?
Homeostasis
The tendency towards a relatvely stable equilibrium
between interdependent elements, especially as maintained
by physiological processes

Negatve Feedback
Almost all homeostatc control mechanisms are
negatve feedback mechanisms:
o Acid-base balance o
Body temperature o
Glucose level
o Calcium level
o Fluid volume

Positve Feedback
o Oxytocin - hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter
in the brain

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 Example: Water Resources in Singapore
Identfy the Sources,
Sinks, and Feedback in this
system

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(Source: Poh Xi 2013 Using system dynamics for sustainable water resources management in Singapore. Procedia Computer Science 16 pp 157 – © LGChan
 Example: Water Resources in Singapore
Source SinkSink
Source

Sink
Sink

Source
Sink

FEEDBACK

FEEDBACK

Source Sink
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(Source: Poh Xi 2013 Using system dynamics for sustainable water resources management in Singapore. Procedia Computer Science 16 pp 157 – © LGChan
END OF LECTURE 1.4
SYSTEMS DYNAMICS

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