Ch.

4 Arrangement of
Electrons in Atoms
4.1 The Development of a
New Atomic Model
 Light
• Before 1900, scientists thought that
light behaved only as wave
• discovered that also has particle-like
characteristics
 Light as a Wave
• electromagnetic radiation:
– form of energy that acts as a wave as it
travels
– includes: visible light, X rays, ultraviolet
and infrared light, microwaves, and radio
waves
• All forms are combined to form
electromagnetic spectrum
Light as a Wave
 Light as a Wave
• all form of EM radiation travel at a
speed of 3.0 x 108 m/s in a vacuum
• it has a repetitive motion
• wavelength: (λ) distance between
points on adjacent waves; in nm
(109nm = 1m)
• frequency: (ν) number of waves that
passes a point in a second, in
waves/second

Inversely proportional!
c = λυ
 Photoelectric Effect
• when light is shone on a piece of
metal, electrons can be emitted
• no electrons were emitted if the
light’s frequency was below a certain
value
• scientists could not explain this with
their classical theories of light
• Ex: coin-operated sift drink machine
 Photoelectric Effect
• Max Planck: a German physicist
• suggested that an object emits
energy in the form of small packets of
energy called quanta
• quantum- the minimum amount of
energy that can be gained or lost by
an atom
E = hν
Planck’s constant (h): 6.626 x 10-34 J*s
 Photoelectric Effect
• Einstein added on to Planck’s theory
in 1905
• suggested that light can be viewed
as stream of particles
• photon- particle of EM radiation
having no mass and carrying one
quantum of energy
• energy of photon depends on
frequency
 Photoelectric Effect
• EM radiation can only be absorbed by
matter in whole numbers of photons
• when metal is hit by light, an
electron must absorb a certain
minimum amount of energy to knock
the electron loose
• this minimum energy is created by a
minimum frequency
• since electrons in different metal
atoms are bound more or less tightly,
then they require more or less
 H Line-Emission Spectrum
• ground state- lowest energy state of
an atom
• excited state- when an atom has
higher potential energy than it has at
ground state
• line-emission spectrum- series of
wavelengths of light created when
visible portion of light from excited
atoms is shined through a prism
 H Line-Emission Spectrum
• scientists using classical theory
expected atoms to be excited by
whatever energy they absorbed
• continuous spectrum- emission of
continuous range of frequencies of EM
radiation
 H Line-Emission Spectrum
• Why had hydrogen atoms only given
off specific frequencies of light?
current Quantum Theory attempts to
explain this using a new theory of atom
 H Line-Emission Spectrum
• when an excited atom falls back to
ground state, it emits photon of
radiation
• the photon is equal to the difference
in energy of the original and final
states of atom
• since only certain frequencies are
emitted, the differences between the
states must be constant
 Bohr Model
• created by Niels Bohr
(Danish physicist)
in 1913
• linked atom’s electron with emission
spectrum
• electron can circle nucleus in certain
paths, in which it has a certain
amount of energy
 Bohr Model
• Can gain energy by
moving to a higher
rung on ladder
• Can lose energy by
moving to lower rung
on ladder
• Cannot gain or lose
while on same rung of
ladder
 Bohr Model
a photon is
released that
has an energy
equal to the
difference
between the
initial and final
energy orbits
 Bohr Model
• problems:
– did not work for other atoms
– did not explain chemical behavior
of atoms
Introduction to Quantum Theor

• Quantum Theory-
describes mathematically the wave
properties of electrons
 Electrons as Waves
• In 1924, Louis de Broglie
(French scientist)
• suggested the way quantized
electrons orbit the nucleus is similar to
behavior of wave
• electrons can be seen as waves
confined to the space around a nucleus
• waves could only be certain
frequencies since electrons can only
have certain amounts of energy
 Electrons as Waves
c
c = λv v=
λ hc
E=
λ
E = hv
h hc
λ= = mc 2

mv λ E = mc 2

shows that anything with both mass and

velocity has a corresponding wavelength
Uncertainty Principle
• In 1927 by Werner Heisenberg
(German theoretical physicist)
• electrons can only be detected by
their interaction with photons
• any attempt to locate a specific
electron with a photon knocks the
electron off course
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle- it is
impossible to know both the position
and velocity of an electron
 Schrödinger Wave
Equation
• In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger
(Austrian physicist)
• his equation proved that
electron energies are quantized
• only waves of specific energies
provided solutions to his equation
• solutions to his equation are called
wave functions
 Schrödinger Wave
Equation
• wave functions give only the
probability of finding an electron in a
certain location

• orbital- 3D area around a nucleus

that has a high probability of
containing an electron
• orbitals have different shapes and
sizes
 Quantum Numbers
• specify the properties of atomic
orbitals and of electrons in orbitals
• the first three numbers come from
the Schrödinger equation and
describe:
– main energy level
– shape
– orientation
• 4th describes state of electron
 1 Quantum Number
st

Principal Quantum Number: n

• main energy level occupied by
electron
• values are all positive integers
(1,2,3,…)
• As n increases, the electron’s energy
and its average distance from the
nucleus increase
• multiple electrons are in each level
so have the same n value
• the total number of orbitals in a level
 1 Quantum Number
st

Energy
 2 nd
Quantum Number
Angular Momentum Quantum
Number: l
• indicates the shape of the orbital
(sublevel)
• for a certain energy level, the number
of possible shapes is equal to n
• the possible values of l are 0 and all
positive integers less than or equal to n-
1
• each atomic orbital is designated by the
principal quantum number followed by
 2 nd
Quantum Number

s orbitals:
• spherical
• l value of 0
 2 nd
Quantum Number

p orbitals:
• dumbbell-shaped
• l value of 1
 2 nd
Quantum Number

d orbitals:
• various shapes
• l value of 2
 2 nd
Quantum Number

f orbitals:
• various shapes
• l value of 3
 2 nd
Quantum Number

L Sublevel Subleve
evel s ls

0 1 2
3

0 1 2

0 1

0
 3 Quantum Number
rd

Magnetic Quantum Number: ml

• indicates the orientation of an orbital
around the nucleus
• has values from +l  -l
• specifies the exact orbital that the
electron is contained in
• each orbital holds maximum of 2
electrons
Energy Sublevel # Total #
Level s in Level Orbitals of
(n) in Orbitals
Sublevel in Level
1 s 1 1
2 s 1 4
p 3
3 s 1 9
p 3
d 5
4 s 1 16
p 3
d 5
f 7
 4 Quantum Number
th

Spin Quantum Number: ms

• indicates the spin state of the
electron
• only 2 possible directions
• only 2 possible values: +½ and -½
• paired electrons must
have opposite spins
 Energy Level 1
n l ml ms
1 0 0 -½,+½
 Energy Level 2
n l ml ms

2 0 0 -½,+½

1 -1 -½,+½

0 -½,+½

+1 -½,+½
 Energy Level 3
n l ml ms
3 0 0 -½,+½
1 -1 -½,+½
0 -½,+½
+1 -½,+½
2 -2 -½,+½
-1 -½,+½
0 -½,+½
+1 -½,+½
+2 -½,+½
 Energy Level 4
n l ml ms l ml ms
4 0 0 -½,+½ 3 -3 -½,+½
1 -1 -½,+½
-2 -½,+½
0 -½,+½
+1 -½,+½ -1 -½,+½
2 -2 -½,+½ 0 -½,+½
-1 -½,+½ +1 -½,+½
0 -½,+½
+2 -½,+½
+1 -½,+½
+2 -½,+½ +3 -½,+½
 Electron Configurations
• the arrangement of electrons in an
atom
• each type of atom has a unique
electron configuration
• electrons tend to assume positions that
create the lowest possible energy for
atom
• ground state electron configuration-
lowest energy arrangement of
electrons
 Rules for Arrangements
• Aufbau Principle- an
electron occupies the
lowest-energy orbital
that can receive it

• Beginning in the 3rd

energy level, the
energies of the
sublevels in different
energy levels begin to
overlap
 Rules for Arrangements
• Pauli Exclusion Principle- no two
electrons in the same atom can have
the same set of 4 quantum numbers
• Hund’s Rule- orbitals of equal energy
are each occupied by one electron
before any orbital is occupied by a
second
• all unpaired electrons must have the
same spin
Rules for Arrangements
Writing Configurations

• Orbital Notation:
– an orbital is written as a line
– each orbital has a name written below it
– electrons are drawn as arrows (up and
down)
• Electron Configuration Notation
– number of electrons in sublevel is added
as a superscript
http://www.cowtownproductions.com/vining/Sims/atomic_electro
Order for Filling Sublevels
 Writing Configurations
• Start by finding the number of electrons in
the atom
• Identify the sublevel that the last electron
added is in by looking at the location in
periodic table
• Draw out lines for each orbital beginning
with 1s and ending with the sublevel
identified
• Add arrows individually to the orbitals until
all electrons have been drawn
 Silicon
• number of electrons: 14
• last electron is in sublevel: 3p

1s 2s 2p 3s
3p

Valence Electrons- the electrons in the

outermost energy level
 Chlorine
• number of electrons: 17
• last electron is in sublevel: 3p

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
 Sodium
• number of electrons: 11
• last electron is in sublevel: 3s

1s 2s 2p 3s

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

 Calcium
• number of electrons: 20
• last electron is in sublevel: 4s

1s 2s 2p 3s

3p 4s

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

 Bromine
• number of electrons: 35
• last electron is in sublevel: 4p

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

4s 3d 4p

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5

 Argon
• number of electrons: 18
• last electron is in sublevel: 3p

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

 Noble Gas Notation
• short hand for larger atoms
• configuration for the last noble gas is
abbreviated by the noble gas’s symbol in
brackets
Electron Configuration Exceptions

Copper
EXPECT: [Ar] 4s2 3d9
ACTUALLY: [Ar] 4s1 3d10

Copper gains stability with a full

d-sublevel.
Electron Configuration Exceptions

Chromium
EXPECT: [Ar] 4s2 3d4
ACTUALLY: [Ar] 4s1 3d5

Chromium gains stability with a half-

full d-sublevel.
 Stability
Full sublevel (s, p, d, f)
Half-full sublevel

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
 Bell Ringer
• What do you already know about
how bonds are formed? Are there
different types?
 Bonding

Introduction to Chemical
Bonding
 Chemical Bonds
• atoms rarely exist alone
• when atoms are bonded together,
they have less potential energy and
are more stable
• What is potential energy?
• chemical bond – mutual electrical
attraction between the nuclei and
valence electrons of different atoms
that binds the atoms together
• results from Ionic Bonds
electrical
attraction
between
large
numbers of
cations and
anions
• atoms
donate or
accept
electrons
from each
other
 Covalent Bonds
• results from sharing of
electron pairs
between two atoms

• the electrons shared

belong to both atoms
 Covalent Bonds
• Polar Covalent
when electrons are
shared unevenly

• Nonpolar Covalent
when electrons are
shared evenly
Ionic vs. Covalent
 Ionic vs. Covalent
• bonding usually does not fall in one
category or the other, but somewhere in
between
• type of bond depends on the elements
differences in electronegativities
 Ionic vs. Covalent
Difference in Percent Ionic
electronegativitie Character
s
Ionic > 1.7 > 50 %

Polar
0.3 – 1.7 5 – 50 %
Covalent
Nonpolar
0 – 0.3 0–5%
Covalent
 Polarity
• Polar- uneven
distribution of charge
• Show partial charges
on structure by using δ
(lowercase delta)
 Practice
• Determine whether each of the following
bonds will be:
ionic, polar covalent, OR nonpolar
covalent
 Practice
• S and H
– 2.5-2.1=0.4
– polar covalent
• S and Cs
– 2.5-0.7=1.8
– ionic
• C and Cl
– 3.0-2.5=0.5
– polar covalent
 Practice
• Cl and Ca
– 3.0-1.0=2.0
– ionic
• Cl and O
– 3.5-3.0=0.5
– polar covalent
• Cl and Br
– 3.0-2.8
– nonpolar covalent
 Bell Ringer
• How do you determine whether a
compound is molecular or ionic?
– Give an example of each.
• Write the formula for the
compound made from:
– Mg and O
– Ca and Br
– Li and N
Covalent Bonding
 Molecular Compounds
• molecule: neutral group of atoms held
together by covalent bonds
• molecular compound: compound whose
simplest unit is a molecule
 Formulas
• chemical formula: tells the number of
each type of atom in a compound

• molecular formula: tells the number

of each type of atom in a molecular
compound

• ex. H2O, Cl2, C6H12O2

 Molecular Compounds
• diatomic molecule: a molecules containing
only 2 atoms
• usually refers to 2 of the same atoms
• ex: O2, Br2, F2, etc.
Formation of Covalent Bond
Formation of Covalent Bond
• approaching nuclei • two nuclei and two
and electron clouds electron clouds
are attracted to repel each other
each other to creating an
create a decrease increase in PE
in Potential Energy
(PE)
Formation of Covalent Bond
• a distance between the nuclei is
reached in which
– repulsion and attraction forces are equal
– potential energy is at the lowest point
possible
– at the bottom of the curve on PE graph
 Covalent Bonds
• Bond Length
– distance between two bonded atoms at
their lowest PE
– average distance since there are some
vibrations
– measured in pm (1012 pm = 1 m)
– stronger the bond, shorter the bond
 Covalent Bonds
• Bond Energy
– energy is released when atoms become
because they have lower PE
– the same amount of energy must be
used to break the bond and form neutral
isolated atoms
– stronger bond, higher bond energy
– average since varies a small amount
based on atoms in entire molecule
– in kJ/mol
 10/28 Starter
• Which elements naturally exist as
diatomic molecules?
– Remember, the 7 + 1 rule

• How many valence electrons do each

of the halogens have?
• Show or describe how two bromine
atoms would form a covalent bond.
 Octet Rule
• representative elements can “fill”
their outer energy level by sharing
electrons in covalent bonds

• Octet Rule- a compound tends to

form so that each atom has an octet
(8) of electrons in its highest energy
level by gaining, losing or sharing
electrons
• Duet Rule- applies to H and He
 Octet Rule
• Less than 8:
– Boron: 6 in outer energy level
• More than 8:
– anything in 3rd period or heavier
– because may use the empty d orbital
– ex: S, P, I
 Electron Dot Diagrams
• a way to show electron
configuration
• identifies the number and pairing of
valence electrons to show how
bonding will occur
3. write the noble gas notation
4. identify the number of valence
5. identify how many are paired and
how many are alone
6. do not go by Figure 6-10
 Example
• Nitrogen • Sulfur
– 1s2 2s2 2p3 – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
– 5 valence – 6 valence
– 2 are paired – 4 paired (2 pairs)
– 3 are alone – 2 are alone

N
 Lewis Structures
• like dot diagrams but for entire
molecules
• atomic symbols represent nucleus
and core electrons and dots or
dashes represent valence electrons
– unshared electrons: (lone pairs) pair of
electrons not involved in bonding
written around only one symbol
– bonding electrons: written in between 2
atoms as a dash
 Types of Bonds
• single- sharing of one pair of
electrons
– weakest, longest
• double- sharing of 2 pairs of
electrons
– stronger and shorter
• triple- sharing of 3 pairs of electrons
– strongest and shortest
• multiple bonds include double and
triple bonds
 Drawing Lewis Structures
 find the number of valence
electrons in each atom and add
them up
 draw the atoms next to each other
in the way they will bond
 add one bonding pair between each
connected atoms
 add the rest of the electrons until
all have 8 (consider exceptions to octet
rule)
• CH3Cl Example 1
• methyl chloride

• C: 4 x 1 = 4
duet
H octet
duet octet
• H: 1 x 3 = 3
• Cl: 7 x 1 = 7 H C Cl
• total = 14 electrons
• carbon is central
H
H C Cl
duet
H
H
• NH3 Example 2
• ammonia

• N: 5 x 1 = 5
• H: 1 x 3 = 3 H N H
• total = 8

• N is central H
 Example 3

• N2
• nitrogen gas
N N
• N: 5 x 2 = 10
• 10 electrons
N N
 Example 4

• CH2O
•
•
formaldehyde
C: 4 x 1 = 4 H C H
• H: 1 x 2 = 2
•
•
O: 1 x 6 = 6
total = 12
O
• C is central
 Polyatomic Ions
• charged group of covalently bonded
atoms
• Example: CN-
NH4 : ammonium ion
+
 SO42- : sulfate ion
O
• 5 x 6 = 30
• total = 30 + 2 = 32 O S O
O
OH- : hydroxide ion
• 6 + 1 + 1 = 8 total
O H
 Example 5
• O3
• ozone O O O
• O: 6 x 3 = 18
• two completely
equal
arrangements
O O O
• the real structure
is an average of these two
• where each bond is sharing 3 electrons
instead of 4 or 2
 Resonance Structures
• resonance – bonding between atoms
that cannot be represented in on
Lewis structure
• show all possible structures with
double-ended arrow in between to
show that electrons are delocalized

O O O O O O
• NO 1-
3
Example 6

• N: 5 x 1 = 5
• O: 6 x 3 = 18
• total = 23 + 1 = 24
 Covalent Network Bonding
• a different type of covalent bonding
• not specific molecules
• lots of nonmetal atoms covalently
bonded together in a network in all
directions
• example:
– diamond
– silicon dioxide
– graphite
 Bell Ringer
• Draw the Lewis Structure for

XeF4
I3 -

PCl5
RnCl2
Ionic Bonding
 Ionic Compounds
• ionic bonds do NOT form molecules
• chemical formulas for ionic
compounds represent the simplest
ratio of ion types
• made of anions and cations
 Ionic Compounds
• combined so that amount of positive
and negative charge is equal
• usually crystalline solid
• formula of ionic compound depends
of the charges of the ions combined
 Formation
• attractive forces:
– oppositely charged ions
– nuclei and electron clouds of adjacent ions

• repulsive forces:
– like-charged ions
– electrons of adjacent ions
 Formation
• distance between
the ions creates a
balance between
those forces
• ions minimize their
PE by combining in
an orderly
arrangement called
a crystal lattice
 Formation
• specific lattice pattern
created depends on:
– charges of ions
– size of ions
Calcium Bromide:
each Ca2+ is surrounded by 8 F-
each F- is surrounded by 4 Ca2+

Sodium Chloride
each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl-
each Cl- is surrounded by 6 Na+
 Lattice Energy
• energy released when
separate gaseous ion NaCl -787.5
bond to form ionic solid
NaBr -751.4
CaF2 -2634.
• the larger the amount 7
of energy released, the CaO -3385
stronger the bond LiCl -861.3
• since it is released, the MgO -3760
value is negative
KCl -715
 Ionic vs. Molecular
• ionic bonds and molecular bonds are
both strong
– ionic bonds connect all ions together
– molecules are more easily pulled apart
because intermolecular forces are weak
 Ionic vs. Molecular
• Molecular Compounds:
– low melting and boiling points
– many are gases at room temperature

Because the intermolecular forces of the

molecules are weak so they are easily
separated
 Ionic vs. Molecular
• Ionic Compounds:
– higher melting and boiling points
– all are solid at room temperature
– hard: Because of the strong forces, it is
difficult for one layer of ions to move
past another
– brittle: if one layer is moved, the layers
come apart completely
 Ionic vs. Molecular
• Ionic Compounds:
– good conductors in liquid state
Because ions are free to move and carry
charge
– poor conductor in solid state
Because ions are fixed in place
 Bell Ringer
• Why is water’s structure
bent and not linear?
VSEPR Theory and
Molecular Shapes
 VSEPR Theory

V alence • repulsion between

pairs of electrons
S hell around an atom cause
them to be as far apart
E lectron as possible
P air
R epulsion • used to predict the
geometry of molecules
 Molecular Shapes
• diatomic molecules will always be
linear
• all other molecules can have
different shapes based on the
number of charge clouds around the
central atom
• charge clouds include:
– bonding pairs
– lone pairs
 2 Charge Clouds

• no lone pairs:
linear
• CO2
 3 Charge Clouds
• no lone pairs: • 1 lone pair: bent
trigonal planar • SO2
• CH2O
 • no lone pairs: CH4
4 Charge Clouds tetrahedral
• 1 lone pair: NH3
trigonal
pyramidal

• 2 lone pairs: H2O

bent
 5 Charge Clouds

• no lone pairs: • 1 lone pair:

trigonal seesaw
bipyramidal
• SF4
• PCl5