THEORY OF FLIGHT

1. PHYSICS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
❑ The Atmosphere

The gaseous envelope surrounding the

Earth is called the atmosphere. There is no
defined upper limit to the atmosphere, but
most aviation activity takes place within the
first 60,000 ft and therefore we need not study
above that.
❑ Gas
Composition
The gases found in the atmosphere are in
the following proportions (by volume):
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Other gases 1% (e.g. argon, carbon
water vapor) dioxide,
These proportions do not change with
altitude.
❑ Regions of the
TheAtmosphere
atmosphere is divided into a number
of
layers:

➢ The Troposphere
➢ The Tropopause
➢ The Stratosphere
➢ The Mesosphere
➢ The Thermosphere or Ionosphere
The
Temperature decreases with an increase
Troposphere
in height. In this region nearly all significant
weather occurs.
The Tropopause
The upper limit of the troposphere
where temperature stops decreasing
with an
therefore the upper
increase of significant
of height. The tropopause is
limit weather,
the first point
additionally it of lowest
is the regiontemperature,
maximum and
for strengths. wind
The
Stratosphere
approximately 50 km above mean sea
level, and is characterized by the temperature
being steady or increasing with height
The Mesosphere
From 50 km to 80 km. The
temperature
generally decreases with height.
The Thermosphere or Ionosphere
Temperature increase with height
❑ TEMPERATU
TheREtemperature scales most commonly used
are Celsius (also known as Centigrade),
Fahrenheit and Kelvin (also known as Absolute).
The melting point of ice, being O0C and 320f
respectively, and the boiling point of water,
being 1000C or 2120F
Convert unit temperature

9 5
F = C + 32 C = (F − 32)
5 9
Lapse
Rates
The temperature decrease with an increase
of height is referred to as lapse rate.
A representative value of 20C/1000 ft is a
typical value for the troposphere, and this figure
is used as the reference for the Jet Standard.
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
uses
the comparable value of 1.98 C/1000 ft.
❑ Temperature and Aircraft
At Performance
a given pressure, an increase of
temperature results in a reduction of density.
Firstly, considering airframe performance, a
reduction
of density (ρ) reduces lift (L).
This may be counteracted by increasing the true
airspeed (V) to achieve the required amount of
lift (L):

L= CL ½ ρ V2 S

where: CL = coeficient of
lift S = surface area
❑ Temperature and Aircraft
Performance
The dynamic pressure is gained at the expense of
an increased take-of run, cruising TAS or landing
run according to the stage of flight.
 Pressure
Definition
Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area,
i.e.:

Force Mass Acceleration

Pressure = =
Area
Area

Pressure Unit
pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch
(Psi).
 Principle of
the Mercury
Barometer
Variation of Pressure in the
Atmosphere
❑ At sea level, pressure generally
varies between 950 and 1050 mb.
❑ In tropical revolving storms and
tornadoes, however, pressures may
fall much lower.
❑ With increasing altitude the mass
of overlying air decreases and so
the pressure falls.
❑ Pressure values of the
International
Standard Atmosphere are given
Variation of Pressure in the
Atmosphere
❑ Density
Density is the mass per unit volume of a
Definition
substance, at a specified temperature
and pressure.
���
Density � �
���
= ��
Variation of Density in the
Atmosphere
At sea level, densities vary between 1.20 and
1.55 kg per cu m, the higher values being
usually associated with the colder
temperatures of higher latitudes, and the
Variation of Density in the
Atmosphere
Air at lower levels in the atmosphere is
compressed
by the mass of the air above it.
With increasing altitude, the overlying
mass reduces and air can now expand,
resulting in a further reduction of pressure.
With increasing altitude the temperature
also decreases, but at a rate lower than the
pressure. Density, therefore, decreases with
height.
Philip K Hitti, in his book History of the Arabs : From the Earliest
Times to the Present
“Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt
at fying.”
2.THEORY OF
FLIGHT

❑ Lift Augmented
❑ Wing Planforms
❑ Flight Control
❑ Flight Forces
❑ Basic Maneuvers
❑ Lift
Augmentation
Plain
Flap

Split
Flap
Lift Augmentation -
Flaps

Fowler
Flap
Triple-slotted flap. In this configuration, the flap consists of a fore flap, a mid flap,
and an aft flap. When deployed, each flap section slides aft on tracks as it
lowers. The flap sections also separate leaving an open slot between the wing and
the fore flap, as well as between each of the flap sections.
Leading Edge
Flap
Lift Augmentation -
Slats
SLAT
S

Side view (left) and front view (right) of a Krueger flap on a Boeing
737
SLAT
S

Air passing through the slot aft of the slat promotes boundary layer airflow on the
upper surface at high angles of attack
Efect on airfow of
slot
Lift Augmentation -
Slats
Lift Augmentation -
Slats
Change in stall angle with slot
open
Change in stall angle with flap and
slat
Spoilers and Speed
Brakes
A spoiler is a device found on the upper surface of many heavy and high-
performance aircraft. It is stowed flush to the wing’s upper surface. When
deployed, it raises up into the airstream and disrupts the laminar airflow of the
wing, thus reducing lift
❑ The Boundary
Layer
This may be best described as the layer
of air extending from the surface to the
point where no drag effect is discernible,
or, that region of fow in which the speed
is less than 99% of the free stream fow,
and it usually exists in two forms
— laminar and turbulent
Kond isi pe
masuk.an
b e · sif at
h1p0tes 1s
Hubungan antara viskositas
dengan aliran laminar
dan turbulen adalah bila
besar
semakin viskositas yang
terdapat pada maka
fluida
semakin kecil gesekan
yang tejadi antara fluida
dengan permukaan suatu
benda sehingga
kecepatan aliran antara
molekul fluida lebih teratur,
ini berarti aliran ini
cenderung laminar.

Begitupun sebaliknya, semakin

kecil fluida maka
alirannya
viskositas cenderung
bergolak (tidak teratur) atau
turbulen.
,-.1 r t 1111• •
•1 I
 , I
er
,ti m ,

Figure 31. Boundary layer characteristics

❑ Wing
Planforms
Aspect
A = ���
Ratio �2
� � � �
Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex)
Drag The Efects of Taper
Sweepback
❑ Wing
Planforms
Sweepback
❑ Flight
Control
❑ The purpose of fight controls is to
enable the aircraft to be rotated about
its three axes.
❑ Control in pitch is exercised by
elevators which move the aircraft
about its lateral axis,
❑ control in roll by the ailerons which
move
the aircraft about its longitudinal axis
and
❑ control in yaw by the rudder which
❑ Flight
Control
❑ Flight
Control
Tabs
The force of the air against a control surface during the high speed of flight can
make it dificult to move and hold that control surface in the deflected position. A
control surface might also be too sensitive for similar reasons.

a. Balance Tab
Balance tabs assist with forces needed to position control
surfaces.
❑ Flight
Control
Servo
Tab
❑ Flight
Control
Anti-balance Tab
 Rud d er

Aileron
A - T R IM T AB Venable
Unb g

B - S E R V O TAB

C - B A L A NCE TAB

c-- - - - -
-r,l ; ;'-
D - S P J\I. C priog cattridg.
TAB
hom
 Direction of Mot ion
Type Activation Effect
(in relation to
oontrol surface)
Statically balances the
Trim Opposite Set by pilot from cockpit.
aircraft in flight. Allows
Uses independent linkage. "hands off'
maintenance of flight
Moves when pilot moves control surface. Aids pilot in oondition.
overcoming the force
Balance Opposite
Coupled to control surface linkage. needed to move the oontrol surface.

Directly linked to flight Aerodynamically positions

Servo Opposite control input dev ice. Can be control surfaces that require too
primary or back-up means of much force to move manually.
control.
Increases force needed by
Anti-balance Same Directly linked to
pilot to change flight
or Anti-servo flight control input control position. De-sensitizes
device. flight controls.
Located in line of direct linkage to servo Enables moving
Spring Opposite tab. Spring assists when control forces control surface when forces are
become too high in high-speed flight. high.
Inactive during slow flight.
Ground adjustable rudder trim
5. Mass balance
Fungsinya mendapatkan static balance yang mempergunakan
yaitu fixed, mencegah flutter . Materialnya
pemberat yang pivot yang adalah
Konstruksinya tin. terletak di c.g akanmudah
vibration dan flutter. Maka solusinya adalah pivot diletakkan didepan
menyebabkan
cg, ditambah weight sehingga garis pivotnya sebagai e.g.

Flexural center

Location of mass
balance
control surface
configuration
 A ltern at ive Controls
Tai leron s
ADVANTAGES
Drastically Im prove
maneuverabHlty
FUght control software
or mechanical mixers can blend
control Inputs so that e levator and
ai leron fu nct ions can be
performed b y th e same
contro l s urfaces

DISADVANTAGES
Com plex design & Stabilators always move up and
c o ntro l needed down together . Tailerons can move
in opposing directions to impart
Exp ense, com plexity and further roll.
weight make tallerons
Impract ical fo r most
appl lcatlona 19
 A ltern ative Cont ro ls
Spoi lerons
ADVANTAGES
Very ef fective quickly
Used inlarge a ircraf t l ike
the B-52 to avo id
f lexing
long w ings excessively b y
us ing w ingt ip ailerons
(ai lero ns must be near t ip s
to be effect ive at low speed)

DISADVANTAGES Spoilers dump lift from both wings or

A dd weig ht and serve as airbrakes . If they are
com plex ity deployed individually (over the inside
wing) in a turn to aid roll, they are
Net loss of l ift spoilerons.
Bum py ride - harsh
t urns
20
 A ltern at ive Cont ro ls
R u ddervators
ADVANTAGES
Reduces d rag and
w eigh t Keeps
stabil izer s o ut of
wing air (F-117) or
eng ine wash
(Pre dator and
Glo bal Hawk)

DISADVANTAGES A V-tai l serves the functions of

Requires m ore elevators and rudders. And
I promise it's the last s illy
complex name .
contro l system
Stresses em pennage
dur ing pit ch and yaw
21
 Second ary Effects
A dverse Yaw

Left aileron
down increases
LIFT o n left T h is pulls the
w ing nose to the left,
Adver se producing
Yaw ADVERSE YAW
But since a ileron
dips into h igh
pressure a ir stream ,
it also increases
DRAG on the left
side of the plane

RIGHT AILERON ROLL

13
 Seco ndary Effects
A dverse Yaw

Left
aileron down
increases LIFT T his pulls the
on left nose to the left,
wing producing
Adver se
Yaw ADVERSE YAW

But since a ileron

d ips into h igh
pressure air stream ,
it also increases
DRAG on the left
side of the plane

RIGHT AILERON ROLL

13
 Secondary Effects
Adverse Yaw

Rudder can be By producing a

used either counteracting
manually in a R udder/Aileton
yaw force , the
COORDINATED l n a connec;tmg
Spring• rudder can
TURN or it overcome
can adverse yaw
be linked
to aileron
controls

OVERCOM ING ADVERSE YAW

14
 Second ary Effects
A d verse Yaw

FRISE-TYPE This
A ILERONS pivot produces
fur ther back o n equ ivalent
t he ir c hord, drag in both
dipping th e ailerons,
leading edge of
th e aileron Int o negating
adverse yaw
t h e high -
pressure
stream

OVERCOMI NG ADVERSE YAW

15
❑ Flight
Forces
➢ The four forces acting in level fight are
lift, weight, drag and thrust.
➢ The lift acts through the center of
pressure.
➢ The weight is through the center of
gravity.
➢ The drag and thrust act along
lines parallel to the longitudinal
axis
❑ Flight
Forces
❑ Flight Forces
Pitching
Moments
❑ Turning
➢ Flight
Before an aeroplane turns, however,
it must overcome inertia, or its
tendency to continue in a straight
line.
➢ The necessary turning force is
created by banking the aeroplane so
that the direction of lift is inclined.
➢ To maintain altitude, lift must be
increased by increasing back
pressure and, therefore, the angle of
attack until the vertical component
of lift equals weight.
 TOTAL
- VERTICAL

.
r.--
LIFT
COMPONENT
OF IU FT
-I
I

HORIZONT L '\ ,
I '
,
'

I '
COMPONENT
A
OF CENTFaFUGAL
·
',
UFT ' '
v-..-..... . ., FORCE
A": ,.
' I

- ...... - '
'\

.. ' .
' \
'
I

\ , '
I

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I

WEIGHT
------
7-- . . . '\
UPON COMPLETION OF TRAINING, YOU WILL HAVE:
• Knowledge of aircraft construction, structural stress,
and materials used on aircraft.
• Brief the aircraft and its components.
Purpose of aircraf structure either simple or complex
interfaces with the others, ultimately parts work together
to accomplish safe fight.
Must be capable to withstand several loads and meet
requirements of Design, Analysis, and Validation.
Design
requirements
Design
• Ope rate l r"""""""T'. -

• Maintain
Regulatory
requirements
 Manufacturers

Design ana lysis,

\ test and
continued )
verificat ion

/
Regulatory
/""
"
Maintenance
and
actions

Airworth
"inspection

Operators
iness
authorities
Airworthiness requirement for structural strength
• Federal Aviation Regulation Part 25 –
Airworthiness
Standards: Transport Category Airplane.
• EASA
CASR Certifcation
(Amdt 5 Part Specifcation 25.
25 – Airworthiness
• Transport Catagory Airplane. Standards:
Section 1 Regulations:
• Subpart C: Structure.
• Subpart D: Design and Construction.
Clear understanding of DESIGN, ANALYSIS, and
VALIDATION requirements for aircraf structures.
STRUCTURE
REQUIREMENT
1. Weight Consideration
- Maximum Strength & Minimum
Weight
2. Strength & Rigidity
- Minimum Fatique & Corrosion
3. Non Elastic Instability
(Kelenturan yg tidak
Stabil)
Terjadi Fatique → akibat
Buckling
4. Load on Aircraft
5. Material
 r ; r t i ? .,
Design loads
Environment/ Material/Fastener
Discrete events Stiffness and flutter
Maintainability Structures
• Repairability
• lnspectability
Design Static strength
Criteria
Producibility
Crashworthiness Durability
· Fatigue
· Corrosion
Damage Tolerance /
Residual Strength/
Fail Safety/Safe Life
Aircraf are built to meet certain specifed
requirements be selected built into an aircraf.
The primary factors consider in aircraf structures are:
• Strength.
• Weight and
• Reliability.
These factors determine the requirements to be met
by any material used to construct or repair the
aircraft.
Safe Life
Safe Life design is the preferred method for design
of
product for durable operation.
Under this method, the structure is operated at a
stress far below the fatigue strength of
the component.
The principle requires structural elements be replaced
after a fxed number of fight cycle (the component or
system is designed to not fail within a certain, defined
period), base on fatigue analysis.
The life of a structure may depend more on how it is
loaded than on the total number of times it is loaded
(fatigue stress load).
Unsteady aerodynamics and futter fnite
element component and airplane analyses are
conducted.
Structure must remain elastic up to limit loads
and
must carry ultimate loads.
If the resulting component operates at stresses above
the fatigue strength, it is said to be a life
limited component.
 .• • • • • • .
0 ts

107
c:e
--
iU - ! -
----------------
I

J r
I
I

1 10 1D2
- --- 10'4 10
5 10. 107
1113 to failure., Nt ( og
Cycles 1D8
scale )
es
Fail Safe Design
The concept of fail-safe designs is extended here
to include all designs that mitigate the harm
caused by failure (mitigate losses due to system or
component failures).
Fail-safe means that a device will not endanger
lives
or properties when it fails.
Safe-life designs involve a testing and analysis
(fatigue analysis) to estimate how long the
component can be in service before it will likely fail.
Type of design on aircraft:
• Multiple stringer and ribs (wing).
• Multiple wing panels.
• Multiple stringers and frames (fuselage).
• Bonded, bolted atachmet fttings.
Principle of fail-safe that any damage will detected
during inspection.
The damage tolerance philosophy was developed.
 Upper spar cap

- - -1 Rivets
Splice

Lower spar cap

Design objective (free from signifcant corrosion)
during operation.
Maintenance – specifed preventive must be
performed.
Validation – feed back is used to improve
prevention measures.
Damage Tolerance.
Property of a structure relating to its ability to
sustain defects safely until repair can be effected.
Principle requires that any damage is detected
and
repaired before the strength is below minimum level.
Improve on fail-safety structural elements considers
the effects of environmental damage (corrosion) and
accident.
Damage-tolerance (fail-safe) evaluation
“The evaluation must include a determination of
the probably locations and modes of damage due to
fatigue, corrosion, or accidental damage.
The residual strength evaluation must show that
the remaining structure is able to withstand
loads corresponding to…”
Before the strength becomes less, the damage is detected
and repaired back to original capability.
8
6
Difference load for part of
the construction, difference
its made are classified:
• Primary construction.
• Secondary construction.
• Tertiary construction.
Primary construction
Highly stressed (critical load), if damage the structural
integrity can result in loss of control of the aircraft,
very
severe hazards to passengers and crew ( or ).
Secondary construction
Highly stressed (not
directly critical load), if
damage the structural
integrity fight
characteristics will safe to
landing/not collapse (
or ).
Terteary construction
Lightly stressed parts (fairing, minor components) in
manuals or drawing shown in or
.
 Thirty•nine to 66afuminLKn ribs - depending on
the 737 model - are spaced nearly 20 inches apar1
from the nose of plane to the taA and fonn the
cylindricalskeleton of the fuselage. They i n fastened
to the stringers.
Aluminum skin:
One-sixteenth of an inchthick (actualwidtti)

"Bear straps"
Urge pieces of reinforcing sheet metal that
reserrtile a bearskin rug i n
bonded to the skin aroundan
air&ner's doorways. The Boeing
737 has eight , _ straps.•

SOURCES: Profeswr Chllrles E n t ke. Embry R.iddle Aeronautical University: John

Goglia. tanner National Transportallon Safety rd member: Bill Dumer. CEO. 3Plilins Corp.;
Boeing
C. AIRCRAFT
AXIS
C. AIRCRAFT
AXIS
BA
PITCHING
Dimension and Locations
In order to determine a particular location in aircraf
it is divided into three (imaginary) planes that are at
an angle of 900 to each other.
Dimension and Locations
Dimension and Locations
Zonal Identification
The location identification system is used to pin
point the various locations, make it possible to
indicate the location of the centre of gravity.
Localize parts more easily is divided into:
• Major Zones.
• Major Sub-Zones.
• Unit Zones.
Zonal Identification
Major Zones.
Identified by hundred as:
• 100 Fuselage Lower Section.
• 200 Fuselage Upper Section.
• 300 Stabilizer.
• 400 Nacelle.
• 500 Left Wing.
• 600 Right Wing.
• 700 Landing
• 800 gear.
Doors.
Zonal Identification
Each major zone divided into sub-zone broken by
10
sub-zone unit.
200 location
•Example Upperidentification
half body (Major
212. Zone)
• 10 Cockpit (Major Sub-zone)
• 2 Zone number right side (Unit
Zone).
Aircraf Structural Design
Major focus structural design:
• Fail-Safety,
• Fatigue,
• Corrosion,
• Maintenanc and Inspection ability, and
• Product ability
Structural Concept
Aircraft structure are design using a semi monocoque
concept a basic load carrying shell reinforced by
frames and longerons, and stringer construction
support.
Design-Life Criteria Philosophy, with fail-safe design
concepts, the usable structural life would be much
greater.
Consider system installation provision needs to be
given to the construction of the fuselage.
Structural Concept
Drains and Ventilation Provision
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces
of the fuselage, wing and tail unit to drain any fluids
overboard are always open.
Strut·Mol.nted
Fire Detector · ••••·• • •••..... · ... ••• ••• •• • Inlet
Bement • ... •• Door

APU Compartment
Firewall

Firewal -Mounted
Exhaus Fire DetectOf'
t Element
Flow

Fire
Boule
'
Exhaus
t ................··-
Drain ··· .. . ........ .---

Combustor and .. ........ ........ ...... ... Door Mol.nted

Oil Cooler Drain .. Fire Detector
Bement
0 Exhaust Aow 0 Fn BoUle m d F1te Detector 0 APU e
Bements Firewall
Structural Concept
Lightning Strike Protection
Can affect aircraf operations and cause service
interruptions affected by several factors, including
the geographic area where the aircraf operates.
Lightning is initiated at the leading edges, which
ionize, creating a strike opportunity. Lightning
currents travel along the aircraf and exit to the
ground, forming a circuit with the aircraft between
the cloud energy and the ground.
 Ty pic al
L a n ding
Gear

19.7In [O 5 rn) 1
ZOf1a 1B

19.7 In (0.5 rn) =:$r.;;;;;;;. Zeno 1A

= •
Zone 16
Zone 1C
19 .7 in
(0 .5 m) • Zon9 2A
• Zono 2B
Structural Concept
Electrical Bonding
Electrically connecting together all of the metal
structure of the aircraft, including the engine and
metal covering on the wiring will have substantially
the same electrical potential.
Duu ©rQcrw © rQw cr
O
®UVUW@cr
Stress on Aircraf
Airframes must be strong and light in weight.
All materials used to construct an aircraf must be
reliable (minimizes dangerous and unexpected
failures).
Stresses are known as LOADS considered when
an
aircraf is designed.
Many forces and structural stresses act on an
aircraf
when it is flying and when it is static.
• Stress is External force (load)
acts on a body, it is opposed
by an internal force

• Stress =
External Force Area
of Applied Force
FIVE MAJOR STRESS TO WHICH AIRCRAFT
• TENSION,
• COMPRESSION,
• TORSION,
• SHEAR,
• BENDING.
 Tensio
Stres
n
s Area

External Force

Tension Stress describes forces that tend to

pull an object apart.

Example : Control Cable, L/G in Flight, Bolt

Compression
Stress
Continu
e
 Compressio
Stres
n
s Area

External Force

Compression stress is resistance to external force that tries to

push an object together

Example : Aircraft rivet Installation, L/G on Ground

Bending
Stress
Bending
Stress Compression

Bending

ending Stress = Tension +

Compression Example : Aircraft Wing

in Flight
Shear
Stress
Bolt

A Shear stress tries to slice a body

apart.

Example : Bolt, Rivet, Pin etc.

 Torsion/Twist
Stress

Torsion Stress is Applied to a material when it is

twisted. Combination of tension and compression
 Tension = diagonally across the object
 Compression = act right angles to the
tension Example : Engine Crankshaft, Bolt
Installation
Stress on Aircraf
Aircraft structural members are designed to carry
a load or to resist stress, the term “STRESS” is
often used interchangeably with the word “STRAIN”.
External loads or forces cause stress, STRESS is
a material’s internal resistance, or counterforce,
that opposes deformation. The degree of
deformation of a material is STRAIN.
BUKLING are: the event of the skin expand
& defated, because of air-
distribution fuctuation result

Are reduced by:

Corrugated
Construction Honey
Comb
 U p r tltln

I
\
\_ 1 - r llng
I
I
I
I
I \
I
\' - An I
I I I
Ing ft &I r outlt l
uhA"
edge
l - H. . 1 Wu 1
\
l..
OU I u ' 1111
dult up
\
L C.,rl'Uga•ed ln l)<r
11.In
 Lunln11.tod
mrtol l t N cture

Hoa.cycomb
undwich tuns
Met&! mcmbrt
Cl.i..J.t rt-udort'!'d plutl bonded to sandwii;-
h
sa:iJ wil;n rtlCt>t
 Reinforced of the
skin
Other method :
1. Mild Skin
2. Redux Bonding
3. Composite Material
4. Stress Skin
Construction
Stress Skin
Construction
With most Stringer
added
Construction of Aircraf
Constructing an aircraf, a distinction is made
between the main sections and the sub-sections. The
main sections of the aeroplane construction are:
• FUSELAGE,
• WINGS,
• LANDING GEARS,
• EMPENNAGE (Vertical and Horizontal stabilizers)
• POWERPLANT/PROPULSION.
 [ l CFRP NOT SHOWN· • CFRP STRUTS
OFRP • CFRP (AND GFRP) WING TRAILING EDGE LOWER PANELS

O GFRP

• HYBR D (A •C)

A f RP

"!!.-. . ; . . _ -- BELLY FAIRING

AFRPIGFRP/CFRP

LEADING EDGE
UPPER AND LOWl:R PANELS
NOSE LANDING GEAR DOORS GFRP

CFRP: C.rbon Fib9f Reinforced P MAIN LANDING GEAR LEG FAIRING

GFRP:
n tic: G lass F iber Reinforced Plastic: DOOR
QFRP: Quartz Fiber Reinforced Pfaatlc
AFRP: Aramld Fiber Reinforced Plastic
FUSELAGE
The fuselage of an aircraft is subject the fves types of
stress - Torsion, Bending, Tension, Shear, and
Compression.
Engine torque tends to rotate the aircraf in the
direction opposite to the direction the propeller is
turning.
When an aircraf is on the ground, there is a
bending
force on the fuselage.
FUSELAGE
The main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraf,
space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers,
and other equipment.
In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the
powerplant.
Two general types of fuselage construction:
• TRUSS, and
• MONOCOQUE.
FUSELAGE
TRUSS TYPE
Is a rigid framework made up of members, such as
beams, struts, and bars to resist deformation by
applied loads.
Generally covered with fabric, usually constructed
of steel tubing welded (of aluminum alloy and may
be riveted or bolted).
That all members of the truss can carry both tension
and compression loads.
Bulkhea Stringer
d s
 135
FUSELAGE
This construction method, lengths of tubing, called
longerons, are welded in place to form a well-
braced framework. Vertical and horizontal struts are
welded to the longerons give the structure a square or
rectangular.
The truss-type fuselage is constructed of steel or
aluminum tubing. Strength and rigidity is achieved by
welding the tubing together into a series of triangular
shapes, called trusses.
FUSELAGE
MONOCOQUE TYPE.
Monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on
the strength of the skin or covering to carry the
primary loads.
Divided into two classes:
• Monocoque,
• Semi-Monocoque.
FUSELAGE
MONOCOQUE (TRUE MONOCOQUE)
Uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to
give shape to the fuselage.
Since no other bracing members are present, the skin
must carry the primary stresses and keep the fuselage
rigid.
The biggest problem in monocoque construction is
maintaining enough strength while keeping the
weight within allowable limits.
FUSELAGE
SEMI-MONOCOQUE
To overcome the strength/weight problem of
monocoque construction, a modifcation called
semimonocoque construction was developed.
Consists of Frame assemblies, Bulkheads, and
Formers (as in the monocoque), additionally, the skin
is reinforced by longitudinal members called
longerons (extend across several frame members
and help the skin support primary bending loads).
Stringers (lighter than the longerons) also used.
FUSELAGE
The semi-monocoque system uses a substructure to which the airplane’s
skin is atached. which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of various
sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the
bending stress from the fuselage.
FUSELAGE
On single engine is usually atached
to the front of the fuselage, a
freproof partition between the rear
of the engine and the fight deck to
protect the pilot and passengers
from accidental engine fre
(frewall) of heat-resistant material.
FUSELAGE
Stringers variety of shape from piece of aluminium
alloy extrusion have some rigidity used for giving
shape and atachment of the skin.
Advantages of semi-monocoque fuselage where are
Bulkheads, Frames, Stringers, and Longerons facilitate
design and construction streamline (rigid and strong).
Spreading loads these structures and skin (stressed
skin) may withstand considerable damage and still be
strong to hold together.
WINGS
That airfoil rapidly through the air create lif, controls
speed, generates lif, balance and stability all change.
Both leading edge and trailing edge may straight or
curved or combined; the tip may be square, rounded
even tip.
Wings atached to the fuselage at the Top, Mid
or Bottom of fuselage.
They may extend perpendicular to the horizontal or
can angle up/down slighty of fuselage (dihedral), that
affect lateral stability of the aircraft.
WINGS
WINGS
LANDING GEARS
Support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking
off, or when landing; consists of wheels, foats, or
skis.
LANDING GEARS
Three wheels (two main wheels, third wheel either
front or rear of the aircraft).
Rear mount of wheel (conventional landing gear)
refer as tailwheel aircraft.
Front/nose mount of wheel refer as tricycle
gear, both wheel nose or tail wheels are
steerable to control the aircraf on the ground.
EMPENAGE
The tail section of an airplane is empennage,
consisting of fxed surfaces Vertical Stabilizer and the
Horizontal Stabilizer.
POWERPLANTS
Includes both the engine and the propeller to provide
the power also generates electrical power covered by
a cowling.
Construction of Aircraf
Assembly methods used it should be it is far easier to
remove (on a regular basis by Bolt and Nut).
On an aircraf where it is not possible to reach both
sides of the structure (special blind rivets must be
installed).
Surfaces of the plate considerations are involved with
suitable jointing compound.
Construction of Aircraf
Bolted joints one method by applying a measured
torque load, the other type relies on the ear
sh strength.
Construction of Aircraf
Riveting to fasten parts together to form the
aircraf structure, rivets are type fastener used in
aircraf (Solid and Blind/Special/Hollow).
Construction of Aircraf
Bonding used to atach parts or components often be
used with adhesive bonding and shall be classified for
structural application means:
• Designating levels and types of inspection.
• Peel strength requirements.
 .
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