LEADERSHIP IN

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Prepared by
Christine P. Lonoy
PhD Education- Curriculum and Instruction
University Of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines
BASIC TASKS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development is a
comprehensive activity that
accomplishes the following:
o facilitates analysis of purpose
o designs a programme
o implements a series of related
experiences
o aids in the evaluation of this process
In other words curriculum development is not merely the
process of introducing new courses or updating courses
but is a process involving some basic tasks.

The basic tasks involved in the development of curriculum

are -
i) Establishing the Philosophy
ii) Assessing Needs
iii) Formulating Goals and Objectives
iv) Selecting Curriculum Experiences
v) Organising Content
vi) Selecting Appropriate Instructional Strategies
vii) Evaluating Learning and Instruction
MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
o The success of our educational
endeavours rests on careful planning,
without which disorder and chaos will
result.
o The need to plan effective curricula
cannot be denied.
o From such curriculum plans a model for
curriculum development will emerge.
o For the construction of a curriculum,
thought has to be given to goals,
content, learning experiences, methods
and evaluation.
MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1.Technical-Scientific Models

 Taba's Model
 Goodlad's Model
 Hunkins's Developmental Model
Taba’s Model (The Rational Model)
 Hilda Taba (1962) presented a model, also
known as "interactive model" or "Instructional
Strategies Model", which mainly focuses on
the planning of instructional strategies and
considers it the basis of the curriculum design.
 Her model includes five mutually interactive
elements of teaching and learning system:
(1) objectives,
(2) contents,
(3) learning experiences,
(4) teaching strategies, and
(5) evaluative measures.
Taba’s Model
 Hilda Taba advocated that those who use
curriculum should be the curriculum designers
as well.
 She believed that teachers should create
specific teaching-learning situations for their
students.
 They should adopt an inductive approach to
teaching i.e. from specific to general rather
than the traditional deductive approach,
starting from general and building to the
specifics.
Taba's grassroots model has seven steps as listed below,
advocating a major role for teachers. These are -

Diagnosis of needs Identify needs of the students for curriculum is to be planned

Formulation of Objectives Specify the objectives by which needs will be fulfilled.

Selection of Content
Organization of Content
Select subject matter based on objectives and determine validity of
the chosen content.
Arrange the content in a particular sequence keeping in mind the
maturity of learners, academic achievement, interests etc.

Selection of Learning Experiences Facilitate interaction of learners with content through appropriate
instructional methodology.

Organization of Learning Activities • The learning activities be organized in a sequence depending

both on content sequence and learner characteristics.

Evaluation To assess the achievement of learning objectives, evaluation

procedures need to be devised.
Taba’s Model
 Her model gives due consideration to
external factors that may affect various
components of a curriculum including the
vicinity and community of school's location,
the school district's educational policies, the
goals, resources, and administrative
strategies of the school, teachers' personal
style and characteristics, the nature of the
student population.
Weaknesses of Taba’s grassroots model:

 The model has employed the concept of

participatory democracy to a highly technical,
complex and specialized process, and this will
not guarantee effective curricula.

 It takes for granted that teachers have the

time and expertise to engage in such
extensive curricular activities. (Hunkins and
Omstein, 1988.)
Goodlad Model
 In this model the basis of formulating
educational aims is the analysis of values of
the existing culture.

 These aims are translated into educational

objectives, which are stated in behavioural
terms.

 Learning opportunities are provided based on

the learning objectives, for example providing
courses or readings.
Goodlad Model
 educational planners deduce specific educational
objectives from these learning opportunities and
general objectives
 From these objectives, the curriculum planners design
and/or select organizing centers, which provide
learning opportunities for a group of students or a
student.
 its various parts are inter-connected
 Feedback and adjustment of the entire model result
from analyzing the students performances and relating
them to the values of the general society.
Hunkin's Developmental Model

 This model permits those working with the

model to adjust their decision making about
curricular actions.
 For instance, at the content selection stage if the curricularist
finds that no content exists for a particular student, they can
go back to the beginning and rethink the curriculum or go to
the curriculum diagnosis stage to recreate the learning
objectives.
Hunkin's Developmental Model’s Seven (7) Stages
curriculum conceptualization and
legitimization

diagnosis

content selection

experience selection

implementation

evaluation

maintenance
2. Non-technical Non-scientific Models

 Open Classroom Model

 Wienstien and Fantini Model
 Roger's Model of Interpersonal
Relations
Open Classroom Model
 based on the Activity Curriculum
 The proponents of activity curriculum do
not believe in planning any activity for the
children.
 In their view planning in advance could
stifle the child's development.
 This movement was encouraged by
William Kilpatrick at the time when
learning was teacher dominated and
learners were passive recipients of
knowledge.
Open Classroom Model
 According to the activity model, children learnt
by doing and were free to move around in the
classroom.
 Another popular supporter of the model is
Herbert Kohl (I 969).
o He believes that open classroom is a place
where learners can, "...make choices and pursue
what interests them."
 The teacher also finds that "the things that work
best for him are the unplanned ones, the ones
that arise spontaneously because of a student's
suggestion or sudden perception."
Open Classroom Model

 emphasizes freedom of the child from

teacher control and from a rigid
curriculum.
 The child should choose goals as per
needs, interests and aptitudes and thus
choose his own curriculum.
 The model places great faith in the
child's ability and advocates learner
autonomy.
Weinstein and Fantini Model

 This model is based on the belief that

teachers generate new content and
techniques by keeping the learner
central to the whole process.
 They can assess the relevance of the
existing curriculum, content and the
instructional methods employed.
 Based on the assessment the
curriculum is modified to meet the
learner needs.
Weinstein and Fantini Model
 also known as Humanistic Model
 It links socio-psychological factors with
cognition and concerned with the group, as
opposed to individuals as most students are
taught in groups.
 stresses to identify the learners
demographic details and their concerns.
 Through diagnosis, the teacher attempts to
develop student-centered strategies for
instruction to meet learners' concerns and
organize contents around learners' concerns
rather than on the demands of subject
matter
Weinstein and Fantini Model
 He further emphasizes that the content
should be organized according to the
learners: life experiences, their attitudes and
feelings, and the social context in which
they live.
 Teaching procedures should be developed
for learning skills, content, and organizing
ideas.
 Teaching procedures should match the
learning styles on their common
characteristics and concerns.
 Finally, the teacher evaluates the outcomes
of the curriculum: cognitive and affective
objectives.
Weinstein and Fantini Model

 First step in the process of curriculum

development is to identify the learner
group.
o Since learners are taught in groups, their
interests and characteristics form the
basis of teaching.
Weinstein and Fantini Model

 This is followed by identification of student

concerns, and because of this the model is called
non-scientific or non-technical.
o Concerns of the learner determine organization of
content.
o More than demands of the subject matter they
organize ideas and content based on learner needs.
o The sources of content could be - Learners‘ feelings,
students' identity, experiences of a growing person,
and students' knowledge of the social content.
o The type of content will determine the skills to be
developed by the students.
Weinstein and Fantini Model

 The last stage is the identification of teaching

procedures.
o The model aims to develop feelings of self-worth
in the learners after interaction with content and
teachers.
o It emphasizes enhancement of self-image of the
learner and instills in them a confidence and
belief in themselves
Roger's Model of Interpersonal Relations

 Carl Rogers (1979) has developed a model for

changing human behaviour which can be used for
curriculum development.
o In this model the emphasis is on human
experiences rather than content or learning
activities.
o He believes that by interacting in a group,learners
can solve their problems. They express themselves
honestly and explore each other's feelings.
Roger's Model of Interpersonal Relations

 Rogers contends that the group experience

"permits individuals...to know themselves and
each other more fully than is possible in the
usual social or working relationships; the climate
of openness, risk taking and honesty generates
trust", which permits each participant to "test
out and adopt more innovative and constructive
behaviours."
 In short, the model promotes curriculum change
by changing the participants involved in
curriculum development“.
Tyler’s Model (The Objectives Model)
Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on
the following
questions:

o What educational purposes should the school

seek to attain?
o What educational experiences can be provided
that are likely to attain these purposes?
o How can these educational experiences be
effectively organised?
o How can we determine whether these purposes
are being attained?
Tyler’s Model
Tyler (1949) work shows an inclination toward Skinner's
behaviorism (1957) and John Dewey's progressive
education (1963) as he says,

"Since the real purpose of education is not to have the

instructor perform certain activities but to bring about
significant changes in the students' pattern of
behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any
statements of objectives of the school should be a
statement of changes to take place in the students".
(Tyler 1949: 44).

His model is also labeled as "Product Model" as some

researchers considered his thoughts were heavily
influenced by 'scientific management' which is also
associated with his name.
Tyler’s Model
Tyler’s Model
The model is linear in nature, starting from
objectives and ending with evaluation. In this
model, evaluation is terminal.

It is important to note that:

 Objectives form the basis for the selection
and organisation of learning experiences.
 Objectives form the basis for assessing the
curriculum.
 Objectives are derived from the learner,
contemporary life and subject specialist.
Wheeler’s Model
 Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an
improvement upon Tyler’s model.
 Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed
a cyclical model.
 The key elements of this model includes
initial situation analysis, identification of aims
and objectives, contents selection and
organization, selection and organization of
learning activities, and the assessment /
evaluation process.
 Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not
terminal. Findings from the evaluation are
fed back into the objectives and the goals,
which influence other stages.
Wheeler’s Model
Wheeler’s Model
Wheeler contends that:
 Aims should be discussed as behaviours
referring to the end product of learning
which yields the ultimate goals. One can
think of these ultimate goals as outcomes.
 Aims are formulated from the general to the
specific in curriculum planning. This results in
the formulation of objectives at both an
enabling and a terminal level.
 Content is distinguished from the learning
experiences which determine that content.
Kerr’s Model
Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble
those in Wheeler’s and Tyler’s models. However,
Kerr divided the domains into four areas:
• objectives,
• knowledge,
• evaluation, and
• school learning experiences.
Kerr’s Model
Kerr’s Model
What you should note about the model is that:
 the four domains are interrelated directly or
indirectly, and
 objectives are derived from school learning
experiences and knowledge.

In Kerr’s model, objectives are divided into

three groups:
o affective
o cognitive
o psychomotor.
Kerr’s Model
The model further indicates that knowledge
should be :
o organised,
o integrated,
o sequenced, and
o reinforced.

 Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of

information for use in making decisions
about the curriculum.
 School learning experiences are influenced
by societal opportunities, the school
community, pupil and teacherrelationships,
individual differences, teaching methods,
Kerr’s Model
 Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of
information for use in making decisions
about the curriculum.
 School learning experiences are influenced
by societal opportunities, the school
community, pupil and teacher relationships,
individual differences, teaching methods,
content and the maturity of the learners.
 These experiences are evaluated through
tests, interviews, assessments and other
reasonable methods.
 In his model, Kerr asserts that everything
influences everything else and that it is
possible to start an analysis at any point
APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Behavioral Approach

 It is based on the Behavioral Principle

 Goals and objectives are specified
 Content and activities are arranged with
learning objectives
 Learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of
goals and objectives set at the beginning
 Its main aim is to achieve efficiency

Change in behavior indicates the measure of accomplishment.

Managerial Approach
 Became dominant in the 1950’s and 1960’s
 It is based on the following principles:
o General Leader: He/She sets the policies and
priorities, establishes the direction change
and innovation and planning and organising
curriculum and instruction.
o Instructional Leader
o Curriculum Leader: He looks at the
curriculum changes and innovations as they
administer the resources and restructure the
school infrastructure.
Managerial Approach: Role of Curriculum Leader

 To help in the development of School’s

educational goals.
 To plan curriculum with students, parents,
teachers and other stakeholders.
 To design programs of study by grade
levels.
 To help in the evaluation and selection of
textbook.
 To assist teachers in the implementation of
the curriculum.
 To develop standards for curriculum and
instructional evaluation.
System Approach
 The whole system is approached by system
theory.
 The whole approach represents line-staff
relationship of personnel and represent the
way, how the decisions are made.
 It gives the equal importance to all levels:
o Administration
o Counselling
o Curriculum
o Instruction
o Evaluation.
Humanistic Approach

 It is rooted in the progressive philosophy and

follows the child centred movements.
 It considers the formal or planned curriculum
and the informal or hidden curriculum.
 It considers the whole child and believes that in
curriculum the total development of the
individual is the prime consideration.
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
Implementation

- refers to what actually happens in practice as

compared to what was supposed to happen.

Curriculum implementation includes the provision

of organized assistance to staff in order to ensure
that the newly developed curriculum and the most
powerful instructional strategies are actually
delivered at the classroom level.
Curriculum Implementation
There are two components of any implementation
effort that must be present to guarantee the
planned changes in curriculum and instruction
succeed as intended:

1. Understanding the conceptual framework of

the content/discipline being implemented; and,

2. Organized assistance to understand the theory,

observe exemplary demonstrations, have
opportunities to practice, and receive coaching
and feedback focused on the most powerful
instructional strategies to deliver the content at
the classroom level.
Curriculum Implementation
 The superintendent/principal is responsible
for curriculum implementation and for
determining the most effective way of providing
organized assistance and monitoring the level of
implementation.
 A curriculum framework will describe the
processes and procedures that will be followed
to assist all staff in developing the knowledge
and skills necessary to successfully implement
the developed curriculum in each content area.
Curriculum Implementation
It is the responsibility of the superintendent/
principal to keep the board acquainted of the
curriculum implementation activities, progress
of each content area related to curriculum
implementation activities, and to develop
administrative regulations for curriculum
implementation including recommendations
to the board.
Curriculum Implementation
The framework will, at a minimum, describe
the processes and procedures for the
following curriculum implementation activities
to:
 Study and identify the best instructional
practices and materials to deliver the
content;
 Describe procedures for the purchase of
instructional materials and resources;
 Identify/develop exemplars that
demonstrate the learning behaviors,
teaching, and learning environment to
deliver the content;
Curriculum Implementation

 Study the current status of instruction in the

content area (how teachers are teaching);
 Compare the desired and present delivery
system, identify differences (gap analysis),
and develop a plan for addressing the
differences;
 Organize staff into collaborative study
teams to support their learning and
implementation efforts (address the gaps);
Curriculum Implementation

 Provide ongoing professional development

related to instructional strategies and
materials that focuses on theory,
demonstration, practice and feedback;
 Regularly monitor and assess the level of
implementation;
 Communicate with internal and external
publics regarding curriculum
implementation;
 Involve staff, parents, students, and
community members in curriculum
implementation decisions.
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Curriculum Evaluation Defined

…An attempt to toss light on two questions:

o Do planned courses, programs, activities, and

learning opportunities as developed and
organized actually produce desired results?
o How can the curriculum offerings best be
improved?
Bradley’s Effectiveness Model

How can a developed curriculum be assessed

and evaluated for effectiveness?

 Bradley’s (1985) book Curriculum Leadership

and Development Handbook provides 10 key
indicators that can be used to measure the
effectiveness of a developed curriculum.
 It is designed to help you identify your
perceptions regarding the 10 indicators to
appraise curriculum effectiveness in your school
building or district.
Bradley’s Effectiveness Model for Curriculum
Development Indicators
Bradley’s Effectiveness Model
 The indicators for effective curriculum
development represent working characteristics
that any complex organization must have in
order to be responsive and responsible to its
clients.
 Further, the measurement can be oriented to
meet the needs of any school district—from
large to small—and it can focus on a specific
evaluation of a district’s curriculum area, such
as reading, language arts, math, or any content
area designated.
 The models (Tyler’s objectives-centered model;
Stufflebeam’s context, input, process, product
model; Scriven’s goal-free model; Stake’s
responsive model, and Eisner’s
connoisseurship model) give some support to
Bradley’s effectiveness model.
Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model

It focuses attention on curricular strengths and

weaknesses, rather than being concerned solely
with the performance of individual students.

It also emphasizes the importance of a

continuing cycle of assessment, analysis, and
improvement.

To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one

matches the initial expectation with the outcomes.
Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model

Steps:

1. Begin with the behavioral objectives that have

been previously determined. Those objectives
should specify both the content of learning and
the student behavior expected.

2. Identify the situations that will give the student

the opportunity to express the behavior
embodied in the objective and that evoke or
encourage this behavior.
Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model

Steps:

3. Select, modify, or construct suitable evaluation

instruments, and check the instruments for
objectivity, reliability, and validity.

4. Use the instruments to obtain summarized or

appraised results.

5. Compare the results obtained from several

instruments before and after given periods in
order to estimate the amount of change taking
place.
Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model

6. Analyze the results in order to determine

strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and
to identify possible explanations about the reason
for this particular pattern of strengths and
weaknesses.

7. Use the results to make the necessary

modifications in the curriculum.
Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model – Deficiencies

 It does not suggest how the objectives themselves

should be evaluated.
 It does not provide standards or suggest how
standards should be developed.
 Its emphasis on the prior statement of objectives
may restrict creativity in curriculum development,
and it seems to place undue emphasis on the pre-
assessment and post-assessment, ignoring
completely the need for formative assessment.
Stufflebeam’s
Context, Input, Process, Product Model
The Stufflebeam model provides a means for
generating data relating to four stages of
program operation:

 Context evaluation, which continuously

assesses needs and problems in the context
to help decision makers determine goals and
objectives;
 Input evaluation, which assesses alternative
means for achieving those goals to help
decision makers choose optimal means;
Daniel Stufflebeam’s
Context, Input, Process, Product Model

 Process evaluation, which monitors the

processes both to ensure that the means
are actually being implemented and to
make the necessary modifications; and
 Product evaluation, which compares
actual ends with intended ends and leads
to a series of recycling decisions.
Daniel Stufflebeam’s
Context, Input, Process, Product Model

During each of these four stages, specific steps are taken:

The kinds of decisions are identified.

The kinds of data needed to make those decisions are identified.

Those data are collected.

The criteria for determining quality are established.

The data are analyzed on the basis of those criteria.

The needed information is provided to decision makers.

Daniel Stufflebeam’s
Context, Input, Process, Product Model

Interesting Features
 Its emphasis on decision making seems
appropriate for administrators concerned
with improving curricula.
 Its concern for the formative aspects of
evaluation remedies a serious deficiency in
the Tyler model.
 Finally, the detailed guidelines and forms
created by the committee provide step-by-
step guidance for users.
Daniel Stufflebeam’s
Context, Input, Process, Product Model

Drawbacks
 Its main weakness seems to be its failure to
recognize the complexity of the decision-
making process in organizations.
 It assumes more rationality than exists in
such situations and ignores the political
factors that play a large part in these
decisions.
 Also, as Guba and Lincoln (1981) noted, it
seems difficult to implement and expensive
to maintain.
Scriven’s Goal-Free Model

Michael Scriven (1972) was the first to question

the assumption that goals or objectives are
crucial in the evaluation process. After his
involvement in several evaluation projects where
so-called side effects seemed more significant
than the original objectives, he began to
question the seemingly arbitrary distinction
between intended and unintended effects. His
goal-free model was the outcome of this
dissatisfaction.
Scriven’s Goal-Free Model
 In conducting a goal-free evaluation, the
evaluator functions as an unbiased
observer who begins by generating a profile
of needs for the group served by a given
program (Scriven is somewhat vague as to
how this needs profile is to be derived).
 Then, by using methods that are primarily
qualitative in nature, the evaluator
assesses the actual effects of the program.
 If a program has an effect that is
responsive to one of the identified needs,
then the program is perceived as useful.
Scriven’s Goal-Free Model
Contribution
 Scriven’s main contribution was to redirect the
attention of evaluators and administrators to
the importance of unintended effects—a
redirection that seems especially useful in
education.
o If a mathematics program achieves its objectives of
improving computational skills but has the unintended
effect of diminishing interest in mathematics, then it
cannot be judged completely successful.
 Scriven’s emphasis on qualitative methods
also seemed to come at an opportune
moment, when there was increasing
dissatisfaction in the research community with
the dominance of quantitative methodologies.
Scriven’s Goal-Free Model

Drawbacks
 Goal-free evaluation should be used to complement,
not supplant, goal-based assessments.
 Used alone, it cannot provide sufficient information
for the decision maker.
 Some critics have faulted Scriven for not providing
more explicit directions for developing and
implementing the goal-free model; as a consequence,
it probably can be used only by experts who do not
require explicit guidance in assessing needs and
detecting effects.
Stake’s Responsive Model

Robert Stake (1975) made a major contribution to

curriculum evaluation in his development of the
responsive model, because the responsive model is
based explicitly on the assumption that the concerns
of the stakeholders—those for whom the evaluation
is done—should be paramount in determining the
evaluation issues.
Stake’s Responsive Model
To emphasize evaluation issues that are
important for each particular program, the
responsive evaluation approach should be
used.
o It is an approach that trades off some
measurement precision in order to
increase the usefulness of the findings to
persons in and around the program.

An educational evaluation is a responsive

evaluation if (1) it orients more directly to
program activities than to program intents;
(2) responds to audience requirements for
information; and (3) if the different value
perspectives present are referred to in
reporting the success and failure of the
program.
Stake’s Responsive Model
Stake recommends an interactive and recursive
evaluation process that embodies these steps:

••The evaluator meets with clients, staff, and

audiences to gain a sense of their perspectives on and
intentions regarding the evaluation.

••The evaluator draws on such discussions and the

analysis of any documents to determine the scope of the
evaluation project.

••The evaluator observes the program closely to get a

sense of its operation and to note any unintended
deviations from announced intents.
Stake’s Responsive Model
••The evaluator identifies the issues and problems
with which the evaluation should be concerned. For
each issue and problem, the evaluator develops an
evaluation design, specifying the kinds of data needed.
••The evaluator selects the means needed to acquire
the data desired. Most often, the means will be human
observers or judges.
••The evaluator implements the data-collection
procedures.
••The evaluator organizes the information into themes
and prepares “portrayals” that communicate in natural
ways the thematic reports. The portrayals may involve
videotapes, artifacts, case studies, or other “faithful
representations.”
••By again being sensitive to the concerns of the
stakeholders, the evaluator decides which audiences
require which reports and chooses formats most
appropriate for given audiences.
Stake’s Responsive Model
Advantage
- its sensitivity to clients
o By identifying their concerns and being sensitive to
their values, by involving them closely throughout
the evaluation, and by adapting the form of reports
to meet their needs, the model, if effectively used,
should result in evaluations of high utility to clients.
- The responsive model also has the virtue of
flexibility: The evaluator is able to choose from a
variety of methodologies once client concerns have
been identified.

Weakness: - its susceptibility to manipulation by

clients, who in expressing their concerns
might attempt to draw attention away
from weaknesses they did not want
exposed.
Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model

Elliot Eisner (1979) drew from his background in

aesthetics and art education in developing his
“connoisseurship” model, an approach to evaluation
that emphasizes qualitative appreciation. The Eisner
model is built on two closely related constructs:
connoisseurship and criticism.
Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model

Connoisseurship, in Eisner’s terms, is the art

of appreciation—recognizing and appreciating
through perceptual memory, drawing from
experience to appreciate what is significant. It
is the ability both to perceive the particulars
of educational life and to understand how
those particulars form part of a classroom
structure.
Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model

Criticism, to Eisner, is the art of disclosing

qualities of an entity that connoisseurship
perceives. In such a disclosure, the
educational critic is more likely to use what
Eisner calls “nondiscursive”—a language that
is metaphorical, connotative, and symbolic. It
uses linguistic forms to present, rather than
represent, conception or feeling.
Educational Criticism of Eisner’s Connoisseurship
Model has 3 aspects

(1) The descriptive aspect is an attempt to

characterize and portray the relevant qualities of
educational life—the rules, the regularities, the
underlying architecture.
(2) The interpretive aspect uses ideas from the
social sciences to explore meanings and develop
alternative explanations—to explicate social
phenomena.
(3) The evaluative aspect makes judgments to
improve the educational processes and provides
grounds for the value choices made so that others
might better disagree.
Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model
Contribution
- it breaks sharply with the traditional scientific
models and offers a radically different view of
what evaluation might be.
- it broadens the evaluator’s perspective and
enriches his or her repertoire by drawing from a
rich tradition of artistic criticism.

Weakness
- lack of methodological rigor, although Eisner has
attempted to refute such charges.
- the use of the model requires a great deal of
expertise, noting the seeming elitism implied in
the term connoisseurship.
Developing an Eclectic Approach
While the models proposed by the experts
(Stake, Scriven, Eisner, and Worthen)
differed in many of their details, several
common emphases emerged in the
approaches:
o Study the context,
o determine client concerns,
o use qualitative methods,
o assess opportunity cost (what other
opportunities the student is missing by
taking this course),
o be sensitive to unintended effects, and
o develop different reports for different
audiences
Developing an Eclectic Approach

By using these common emphases, along with

insights generated from analyzing other
models, it is possible to develop a list of
criteria that can be used in both assessing
and developing evaluation models.

The criteria result in an eclectic approach

to evaluation, one that draws from the
strengths of several different models.