Unit 2

Sampling design involves many basic questions.

 Should a sample be taken
 If so, what process be followed?
 What kind of sample be taken?
 How large it should be?
 What can be done to control and adjust non response
error?
 Sampling- Introduction

 Sampling is the easiest method of social

investigation.

 A sampling is very familiar to all & it is the most

important tool in research.

 The purpose of sampling is to enable researcher

to estimate some unknown characteristics of
the population.
•Census-is an investigation of all the individuals elements that
make up the population, a total enumeration rather than a
sample.(count of all elements in a population)
• Sample:is a subset,or some part ,of a larger population selected
for participation in the study .
•Sampling: procedure using a small number of items or parts of the
whole population to make conclusions regarding the whole
population.
•Drawing conclusions about the entire population ,by selecting
some of the population elements .
 Population and universe- when group if
finite(population),infinite(universe).
 Population element – refers to an individual member of the
population.
 Example :1000 blue collor workers in a particular organisation
happens to be the population of interest to a researcher, each
blue-collor worker therein is an population element
 Population is a complete group of entities sharing
some common set of characteristics.

 Examlpe: A researcher wants to know the the kinds of

advertising strategies adopted by computer firms in
the silicon valley.

 A resaercher wants to know how patients in ICU

department run by a company in Bangalore are cared
for.
SAMPLING……
 What is your population of interest?
To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
All doctors
School children
Indians
Women aged 15-45 years
Other
 Can you sample the entire population?

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Definition
 The process of using a small number of items or
parts of a larger population to make
conclusions about the whole population.

 A sample is a subset, or some part of, a larger

population.
SAMPLING…….
 3 factors that influence sample representativeness
Sampling procedure
Sample size
Participation (response)
 When might you sample the entire
population?/census
When your population is very small
When you have extensive resources
When you don’t expect a very high response

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Why Sample?

Lower Cost
Greater Accuracy of results
Greater Speed of data collection
Availability of population elements

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CHARACTERISTICS:
The sample should possess the following
characteristics.
 Representativeness
 Adequacy (size of sample)
 Independence
 Homogeneity
 Lack of bias
 Accuracy & completeness
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

 It is time saving process.

 Sampling makes the study less
expensive.
 It gives much scope for a detailed
study.
 Small sample is more convenient.
 Result will be more accurate.
 Sampling is the best method for all
types of Research.
 DISADVANTAGES
 Faulty method may lead to biased selection & hence false
generalization.

 Results will be accurate only if the sample is

representative.

 Selection of the representative sample is very difficult.

 Results may be misleading & biased because of lack of

response.

 Sometimes sample is heterogeneous & it is not possible to

draw a representative sample.
Defining the Population

Census = every person in the population is

considered. It takes complete info. Quite
expensive and slow.

Sample = a portion of the total population is

considered. It is faster and easier to
implement. It has more error.
 Sample Vs Census
Type of study Conditions favoring
the use of
Sample Census
1.Budget Small Large
2.Time Available Short Long
3.Population Size Large Small
4.Variance in the Small Large
Characteristics
5.Cost of Sampling Low High
Errors
6.Cost of non-sampling High Low
Errors
7.Nature of measurement Destructive Non- destructive
The Sampling Design Process
Define the Target Population

Select the Sampling Frame

Select Sampling Technique(s)

Plan Procedure for selecting sampling units

Determine the Sample Size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 Define the Target Population
The target population is the collection of
elements or objects that possess the information
sought by the researcher and about which
inferences are to be made.
l Example:
1. A researcher is interested in knowing the
impact of comic character on personality of
kids under 7.
2. A company is interested in assessing the
consumer response to a new brand of
The target population should be defined in terms of elements,
sampling units, extent, and time.

 An element is the object about which or from which the

information is desired, e.g., the respondent.

 A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the

element, that is available for selection at some stage of the
sampling process. (Revlon)

 Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.

 Time is the time period under consideration.

Eg:
Elements- male or female head of the household responsible for
most of the shopping
Sampling units- Households
Extent – Bangalore
Time- 2016
 Sampling Units
 Single element or Group of elements
subject to selection in the sample
 Primary Sampling Units (PSU)- units
selected in the first stage of sampling.
 Secondary Sampling Units
 Tertiary Sampling Units
Sampling Frame
 A list of elements from which the sample may
be drawn
 Also called as the Working population
 Examples:
-Mailing lists - data base marketers
-Directory
 Sampling frame error- Errors that occurs when
certain sample elements are not listed or
available and are not represented in the sampling
frame.
 Determining The Sample Size
Important qualitative factors in determining the
sample size

the importance of the decision

the nature of the research
the number of variables
the nature of the analysis
sample sizes used in similar studies
resource constraints
 Sample Sizes Used in Marketing
Research Studies
Type of Study Minimum Typical
Size Range

Problem identification 500 1,000-

research (e.g. market 2,500
potential)
Problem-solving research 200 300-500
(e.g. pricing)

Product tests 200 300-500

Test marketing studies 200 300-500

TV, radio, or print 150 200-300

advertising (per commercial
or ad tested)
Test-market audits 10 stores 10-20
stores
Focus groups 2 groups 6-15
groups
 Classification of Sampling Techniques
Sampling Techniques

Non probability Probability

Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
 Two Major Categories of Sampling

 Probability sampling
A sampling technique in which every
member of the population has a known,
non-zero probability of selection.
 Non probability sampling
A sampling technique in which units of
sample are selected on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience.
 Non Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Convenience sampling (haphazard or accidental)

- Attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements.
Often, respondents are selected because they happen to
be in the right place at the right time.
Examples:
mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents.
“people on the street” interviews.
 Non Probability Sampling Techniques:

1.Convenience sampling (haphazard or

accidental)
- Attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements.
Often, respondents are selected because they happen
to be in the right place at the right time.

 use of students, and members of social

organizations.
 mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents.
 “people on the street” interviews.
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING…….

 Use results that are easy to get

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 People interviewed in a shopping centre for
their political opinion for a TV programme.

 Requesting people to volunteer to test

products.

 Interviews conducted by a TV channel of people

coming out of a cinema hall, to seek their opinion
about the movie.

 A researcher visit a few shops near his

residence to observe which brand of a particular
brand people are buying.
Advantages
l Least time consuming

l Sampling units are accessible

l Cooperative

l Limitations
l Selection bias
l Not representative sample
l Generalisation of results not possible
l Convenience sampling is not recommended for descri
l Can be used in exploratory
 2.Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling( Purposive)
- in which the population elements are selected based on
the judgment of the researcher.
- Require special effort to locate and gain access.

 purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing

research
 expert witnesses used in court
Advantages
l Low cost

l convenient

l quick

l Limitations
l Researcher's judgement
l Not representative sample
l Generalisation of results not possible
3.Quota Sampling
Quota sampling – purpose is to ensure that certain characteristics
of a population sample will be represented to the exact extent that
investigator desires.
 The first stage consists of developing control categories, or
quotas, of population elements.
 In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.

Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Gender
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
 Possible Sources Of Bias
Respondents chosen because they were:
• Similar to interviewer
• Easily found
• Willing to be interviewed

Advantages of Quota Sampling

• Speed of data collection
• Lower costs
• Convenience
 4.Snowball Sampling
A sampling procedure in which initial respondents are
selected by probability methods and additional
respondents are obtained from information provided
by the initial respondents.

 After being interviewed, these respondents are asked

to identify others who belong to the target population
of interest.
 Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.
Probability Sampling
1.Simple Random Sampling:
 Each element in the population has a known and equal
probability of selection.

 Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and

equal probability of being the sample actually selected.

 This implies that every element is selected independently

of every other element.

 Eg: Select sample size of 10 from a sampling frame of 60

elements – From random number table
 2.Systematic Sampling
 The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting
point and then picking every nth element in succession
from the sampling frame.

 The sampling interval - The number of population

elements between units selected for the sample.

 When the ordering of the elements is related to the

characteristic of interest, systematic sampling increases
the representativeness of the sample.
 If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical
pattern, systematic sampling may decrease the
representativeness of the sample.

For example, there are 100,000 elements in the

population and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this
case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random
number between 1 and 100 is selected.

- If, for example, this number is 23, the sample consists

of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
 3.Stratified Sampling
 A two-step process in which the population is partitioned
into subpopulations, or strata.
 The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive in that every population element should be
assigned to one and only one stratum and no population
elements should be omitted.
 Next,elements are selected from each stratum by a
random procedure, usually SRS.
 A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase
precision without increasing cost.
 EX
1)to estimate the expenditure of households on entertainment.
2)Amount of money spent on cosmetics
Stratified Sampling
 The elements within a stratum should be as
homogeneous as possible, but the elements in
different strata should be as heterogeneous as
possible.

 The stratification variables should also be closely

related to the characteristic of interest.

 Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of

the stratification process by being easy to
measure and apply.
Probability Sampling-Stratified
In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample
drawn from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of
that stratum in the total population.

In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample

from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that
stratum and to the standard deviation of the distribution of the
characteristic of interest among all the elements in that stratum.
 4.Cluster Sampling
 The target population is first divided into mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or
clusters.

 Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a

probability sampling technique such as SRS.
 Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous
as possible, but clusters themselves should be as
homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each cluster should be
a small-scale representation of the population.

 In probability proportionate to size sampling, the

clusters are sampled with probability proportional to size.
In the second stage, the probability of selecting a sampling
unit in a selected cluster varies inversely with the size of
the cluster.
 Strengths and Weaknesses of
Basic Sampling Techniques
Technique Strengths
Nonprobability Sampling Least expensive, least
Convenience sampling time-consuming, most
convenient
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient,
not time-consuming
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled
for certain characteristics
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare
characteristics
Probability sampling Easily understood,
Simple random sampling results projectable
(SRS)
Systematic sampling Can increase
representativeness,
easier to implement than
SRS, sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Include all important
subpopulations,
precision
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost
effective
Weaknesses
Selection bias, sample not
representative, not recommended for
descriptive or causal research
Does not allow generalization,
subjective
Selection bias, no assurance of
representativeness
Time-consuming
Difficult to construct sampling
frame, expensive, lower precision,
no assurance of representativeness.
Can decrease representativeness
Difficult to select relevant
stratification variables, not feasible to
stratify on many variables, expensive
Imprecise, difficult to compute and
interpret results
 Choosing Probability Vs Non probability
Sampling
Factors Non probability Probability

Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive

Sampling and Non Non sampling errors Sampling errors are

sampling errors are more more
Variability in homogeneous heterogeneous
population
Statistical unfavourable favourable
considerations
Operational favourable unfavourable
considerations
 Measurement
How do you measure height, weight of a
physical object
Measure - how well you like a song , painting

or personality of a friend.
How do you measure Intelligence

Properties like weight, height, age can be

measured with standard unit of measurement
Measuring properties like Intelligence,
Motivation
Accuracy in measurement (concept is abstract )
Measurement is assigning numbers or other symbols to
characteristics of objects according to certain pre-
specified rules.

Eg: Do not measure – consumers

But measure perceptions, attitudes, preferences etc

The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized

and applied uniformly.

Rules must not change over objects or time.


 Rules for measurement
A rule is a guide that tells someone 'what to do'
An instruction to guide assignment of a number
or other measurement designation.
e.g: Assign the numerals 1 through 7 to
individuals according to how productive they are.
Assign 7 to most productive and 1 to least

productive

Operational definition helps the researcher to

specify the rules for assigning numbers.
Example:
Height of an individual:
1.Quite tall for his age
2.Moderately tall for his age
3.About average for his age
4.Moderately short for his age
5.Quite short for his age.
 We can compare him to ten neighbourhood children.-4
 Conventional measuring unit- 137
 We can define two catagories-1
 Scales
To effectively carry out any measurement we need to
use some form of a scale.

A scale as any series of items (numbers) arranged

progressively according to value or magnitude into which
an item can be placed according to its quantification (i.e.
for the purpose of placing objects based on how much of
an attribute they possess)

The thermometer for instance consists of numbers

arranged in a continuous spectrum to indicate the
magnitude of “heat” possessed by an object.
Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which
measured objects are located.
Purpose of scaling is to represent quantitatively an item's ,

a person's ,or an events' place in the spectrum.

Scaling can be considered as an extension of
measurement.
Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 10 for locating

consumers according to the characteristic 'attitude toward

department stores'.
1 to 10 represents degree of (un)favourableness

1 = Extremely Unfavourable, and 10 = Extremely

Favourable.
Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 10

Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from

1 to 10 to each respondent.
 Scale Characteristics and Levels of
Measurement
All scales can be described in terms of 4 basic
characteristics-
Description

Order

Distance

Origin

.................define the level of measurement of a

scale.
Level of measurement denotes what properties

of an object the scale is measuring or not

measuring.
 The Four Characteristics
Description – Unique labels or descriptors that are used to
designate each value of the scale.
Eg: 1.Female 2.Male;
All scales possess this characteristics of description
All scales have unique labels

Order – Relative sizes or positions of the descriptors

lOrder is denoted by descriptors such as 'greater than', 'less than ',

'equal to'.
lEg: Respondents reference for 3 brands of athletic shoes

Most preferred brand represented as first and least the last.

NIKE

Reebok

Adidas
 The Four Characteristics
All scales do not possess order characteristics
Eg: In gender scale 1= Male 2=Female, does not mean male
is superior than female.

Distance – Characteristic of distance means that absolute

difference between the scale descriptors.
eg: A five person household has one person more than a
four person household, which in turn has one more person
than a three person household.

This scale possesses the distance characteristics

Scale with distance also has order

Distance also implies order

 The Four Characteristics
Origin – scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true
zero point .
Eg: Annual household income –

An answer of zero would mean that the household has

no income at all
A scale which has origin also has distance

Origin is the highest level of characteristics

Description is most basic characteristics

If a scale has order , it has description also

If a scale has distance, it also has order and description

If has origin, then it has all the other 3 characteristics

 Types of scales/Primary scales of
measurement
Nominal Scale – is a labelling scheme in which the numbers
serve only as labels for identifying and classifying objects.
Eg: Roll No assigned to each student

Each number is assigned to only one object/Each object has

only one number assigned to it.
Nominal scales are used to identify respondents. brands.

attributes, stores etc

Numbering does not show the order.

Can not do much arithmetic operations with these

numbers.
Least powerful level of measurement
 Types of scales/Primary scales of
measurement
Ordinal Scale – is a ranking scale in which numbers are
assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which
the objects possess some characteristics
Allows to determine whether an object has more or less

of a characteristics than some other object, but not how

much more or less.
Indicates relative position not the magnitude of the

difference between the objects.

Object ranked first has more of the characteristics as

compared to the object ranked second.

Possesses description and other characteristics but do not

posses distance.
 Types of scales/Primary scales of
measurement
Interval scale – represents numerically equal distances on
the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being
measured.
Contains all the information of an ordinal scale, and also

allows to compare the differences between objects.

indicates not only the order but gives the distance also.

Location of zero point is arbitrary.

Eg: Fahrenheit temperature scale- temp. 40 degrees is

not twice as hot as 20 degrees.
Comment only on the magnitude of difference but cannot

comment on the actual strength

 Types of scales/Primary scales of
measurement

Ratio scale – possesses all the properties of

nominal, ordinal and interval scale in addition an
absolute zero point
Possesses the characteristics of origin

We can identify objects, rank and compare

differences.
Eg: height, weight and money

Eg: Sales, costs, market share and number of

customers
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales Provide Different
Information
 Characteristics of Different Levels of Scale
Measurement
Type of Data Numerical Descriptive
Examples
Scale Characteristics Operation Statistics

Nominal Classification but Counting Frequency in each Gender (1=Male,

no order, distance, category 2=Female)
or origin Percent in each
category
Mode

Ordinal Classification and Rank ordering Median Academic status

order but no Range (1=Freshman,
distance or unique Percentile ranking 2=Sophomore,
origin 3=Junior,
4=Senior)

Interval Classification, Arithmetic Mean

order, and distance operations that Standard deviation Satisfaction on
but no unique preserve order Variance semantic
origin and magnitude differential scale
or likert

Ratio Classification, Arithmetic Geometric mean Age in years

order, distance and operations on Coefficient of Income in Rupees
unique origin actual quantities variation