HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis or Hypotheses are defined as

the formal statement of the tentative or
expected prediction or explanation of the
relationship between two or more
variables in a specified population.

―Hypothesis is a formal statement

that presents the expected relationship
between an independent and
dependent variable.‖(Creswell, 1994)
 Hypothesis
•A specific, testable prediction
about what is expected to
happen in a study
•makes a specific prediction
about a specified set of
circumstances
•a speculative guess that has
yet to be tested
•is new and relatively
untested
•the probability of error and
correction are high
Theory Fact
•Well-established principle
which predicts events in
general terms
•Arises from repeated
observation and testing
•Incorporates facts, laws,
predictions, and tested
hypotheses that are widely
accepted
•extensively tested and is
generally accepted
Purpose
Guides/gives direction to the study/investigation
Defines Facts that are relevant and not relevant
Suggests which form of research design is likely to be
the most appropriate
Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of
the findings
Limits the research to specific area
Offers explanations for the relationships between those
variables that can be empirically tested
Furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient
background knowledge to enable her/him to make
suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge
 Forms of Hypothesis

Can take various forms, depending on the

question being asked and the type of study being
conducted
◦ Some hypotheses may simply describe how
two things may be related. For example,
correlational research
◦ In others the researcher might hypothesize
that one variable causes a change in the
other variable (causal relationship
A Hypothesis
must make a prediction
must identify at least two variables
should have an elucidating power
should strive to furnish an acceptable
explanation or accounting of a fact
must be falsifiable meaning hypotheses must be
capable of being refuted based on the results o
the study
must be formulated in simple, understandable
terms
should correspond with existing knowledge
 Conceptual clarity:
Hypot hesi s shoul d consist of clearly
defined & u n d e r s t a n d a b l e concepts. I t shoul d be
s t a t e d in very t e r m s , t h e m e a n i n g & implication of
which c a n n o t be doubted. To facilitate t h e conceptual
clarity, hypot he s i s can be s t a t e d in dec l ar at i ve
s t a t e m e n t , in p r e s e n t t e n s e .
 Empirical referents:
Research must have an ultimate
empi r ical r e f e r e n t . A good hypot hesi s m u s t h a v e
empi r ical basi s from t h e a r e a of enquiry.
 Objectivity:
 Hypothesis m u s t be objective, which
facilitates objectivity in d a t a collection &
keeps t h e r e s e a r c h activity free from
r e s e a r c h e r value - ju d g men t.
 Specificity:
I t should be specific, not
general, & should explain t h e expected
relations b etween variables. For
example, r e g u l a r yoga reduces s t r e s s .
 Relevant:
The hypot hesi s shoul d be r e l e v a n t to t h e
problem being s t u d i e d a s well a s t h e objectives of t h e
study. Hypot hesi s m u s t h a v e relevance w i t h t heor y
u n d e r t e s t in a r e s e a r c h process.
 Testability:
Hypot hesi s shoul d be t e s t a b l e &
shoul d not be a mo r a l j u d g me n t . I t m u s t be
directly/indirectly observable & m e a s u r a b l e . The
r e s e a r c h e r c a n s e t u p a s i t u a t i o n t h a t p e r m i t s one to
a s s e s s if it is t r u e or false. I t m u s t be verifiable. For
example, a s t a t e m e n t such a s ‘bad p a r t n e r s produce
b a d children’. This sor t of hypot hesi s c a n n o t be
tested.
 …
 Consistency:
A hypothesis should be consistent
with a n existing body of theories, r e s e a r c h
findings, & o t h e r hypotheses. I t should
correspond with existing knowledge.
 Simplicity:
A hypothesis should be formulated in
simple & u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t e r m s . I t should
r e q u i r e fewer conditions & a s s u m p t i o n s .
 Availability of techniques:
The r e s e a r c h e r s m u s t m a k e s u r e t h a t
me t h o d s a r e available for t e s t i n g t h e i r
proposed h y p o th eses
 Purposiveness:
The r e s e a r c h e r m u s t for mulate only
purposeful hypotheses, which h a s relevance
with r e s e a r c h problem & objectives.
 Verifiability:
A good hypothesis can be actu ally
verified in practical t e r m s .
 …
 Profundity of effect:
A good hypothesis should h a v e
profound effect upon a variety of r e s e a r c h
variables.
 Economical:
The ex p e n d i t u r e of money & t h e t i me
can be controlled if t h e hypotheses
u n d erlying t h e r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n is good.
 Characteristics of a Testable
Hypothesis
1. A Hypothesis must be conceptually clear
- concepts should be clearly defined
- the definitions should be commonly accepted
- the definitions should be easily communicable

2. The hypothesis should have empirical

reference
- Variables in the hypothesis should be empirical realities
- If they are not it would not be possible to make the
observation and ultimately the test

3. The Hypothesis must be specific

- Place, situation and operation
4. A hypothesis should be related to available
techniques of research
- Either the techniques are already available or
- The researcher should be in a position to develop
suitable techniques

5. The hypothesis should be related to a body of

theory
- Hypothesis has to be supported by theoretical argumentation
- It should depend on the existing body of knowledge

In this way
- the study could benefit from the existing knowledge and
- later on through testing the hypothesis could contribute to the
reservoir of knowledge
Categorizing Hypotheses
Can be categorized in different ways

1. Based on their formulation

Null Hypotheses and Alternate
Hypotheses

2. Based on direction
Directional and Non-directional
Hypothesis

3. Based on their derivation

Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses
Simple Hypothesis

• simple hypothesis predicts that, there

exist a relationship between the
independent variable and dependent
variable.
Example- two hourly positions- changing
of a fully bedridden patient will prevent
bedsore.
– In the above example 2 hourly
position changing is independent
variable and bedsore prevention is
dependent variable.
The statement shows that there exists a
relationship between 2 hourly
positioning and bedsore prevention.
 Complex Hypothesis

• complex hypothesis predicts that

there exists relationship between two
or more independent and dependent
variable.
• Example – for a fully bed ridden patent 2
hourly position changing, 2 hourly back care
and a high protein diet will build up body
resistance, will promote blood circulation
and will prevent bedsore.
– In the above example, three independent
variable are:- A) 2 hourly position changing,
B) 2 hourly back care, C) high protein diet. –
And three dependent variable are:- a)
promotion of blood circulation, B) building
up of body resistance, C) prevention of bed
sore.
 Categorizing Hypotheses
(Cont…)
2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-directional
Hypothesis
Simply based on the wording of the hypotheses we
can tell the difference between directional and non-
directional
◦ If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a
difference between the two groups, then it is a non-
directional hypothesis.
◦ It is non-directional because it predicts that there will
be a difference but does not specify how the groups
will differ.
◦ If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called
comparison terms, such as GREATER/ LESS/ then
it si a directional hypothesis.
◦ It is directional because it predicts that there will be a
difference between the two groups and it specifies
how the two groups will differ
Example- High quality of nursing
education will lead to high quality of
nursing practice skills.

Example- teacher student relationship

influence student’s learning
 Causal Hypothesis
• Causal Hypothesis predicts a cause and
effects relationship or interaction between
the independent variable and dependent
variable.
This hypothesis predicts the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent
variable
In this the independent variable is the
experimental or treatment variable. The
dependent variable is the outcome variable
• Example – early postoperative ambulation
leads to prompt recovery.
Associative hypothesis
• Associative Hypothesis predicts an
associative relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent
variable.
• When there is a change in any one of
the variables, changes also occurs in the
other variable.
The associative relationship between
the independent and dependent
variables may have either. – Positive
association – Negative association
Null Hypothesis

is also called statistical hypothesis

because this type of hypothesis is used
for statistical testing and statically
interpretation.
The null hypothesis predicts that, there
is no relationship between the
independent variable and dependent
variable
.
Simple null hypothesis

• Example – bed rest will not relives

sever asthmatic dyspnea.
In the above example, the
independent variable that is, bed rest
does not have any causal relationship
with the dependent variable that is,
severe asthmatic dyspnea.
Complex null Hypothesis

• Example- smoking, drug abuse,

alcoholism, tobacco use have no
relationship in the occurrence of
malaria, mumps or chicken pox.
Causal null Hypothesis

• Example- high intake of fluid does not

cause tissue edema.
In the above example, the independent
variable, that is, high fluid intake does
not have any causal relationship with
the dependent variable such as, tissue
edema.
Associative null Hypothesis

• Example- Increased dose of

antibiotics will not reduce body
temperature
Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…)
3. Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses
classified in terms of how they were
derived:- Inductive hypothesis - a
generalization based on observation
based on
Observation
observation
Pattern Hypothesis Theory

- Deductive hypothesis - derived from theory

Theory Hypothesis Observation Confirmation
Forming/Developing a
Hypothesis
Articulating the hypotheses that will be
tested is one of the steps in the planning
phase of a research study
A hypothesis is formulated after
the problem has been stated and
the literature study has been conducted

It is formulated when the researcher is

totally aware of the theoretical and
empirical background to the problem
Basic Concepts of Hypothesis
Testing
The Null and Alternate hypothesis
Choosing the relevant statistical test and
appropriate probability distribution. Depends
on
- Size of the sample
- Whether the population standard
deviation is known or not
Choosing the Critical Value. The three
criteria used are
- Significance Level
- Degrees of Freedom
- One or Two Tailed Test
Significance

Before carrying out any test we have to

decide on a significance level which
lets us determine at what point to
reject the null hypothesis and accept
the alternative hypothesis.
Significance

If the probability of a particular result is less than

1 in 20 (P=0.05), we say the result is significant, ie:
the result is not just a chance event.
If the probability of a particular result is less than
1 in 100 (P=0.01), we say the result is highly
significant; again, the result is not just a chance
event.
Level of Significance
The level of significance is the probability of
rejecting a true null hypothesis that is the
probability of “Type I error” and is denoted by α.
The frequently used values of α are 0.05; 0.01; 0.1
etc.
When, α = 0.05 it means that level of significance
is 5%.
α = 0.01 it means 1% level of significance.
α = 0.01 it means 10% level of significance.
In fact α specifies the critical region. A computed
value of the test statistic that falls in the
critical region (CR) is said to be significant. So, α
is called the level of significance
Critical/ Rejection Region
The critical region (CR) or rejection region (RR)
is the area under the curve beyond certain limits
in which the population value is unlikely to fall by
chance only when the null hypothesis is assumed
to be true. If an observed value falls in this
region H0 is rejected and the observed value is
said to be significant. In a word, the region for
which H0 is rejected is called critical region or
rejection region
Confidence Interval

Confidence interval is the interval

marked by limits within which the
population value lies by chance. If an
observed value falls in confidence
interval H0 is accepted.
Critical Values

The values of the test statistic which

separates critical region from confidence
region (acceptance region) are called
critical values.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the most frequently calculated
measure of variability or dispersion in a set of data points.
The standard deviation value represents the average
distance of a set of scores from the mean or average
score.
A smaller standard deviation represents a data set where
scores are very close to the mean score (a smaller range)
. A data set with a larger standard deviation has scores
with more variance (a larger range). For example, if the
average score on a test was 80 and the standard deviation
was 2, the scores would be more clustered around the
mean than if the standard deviation was 10.
Where, SD = Standard Deviation; Σ = Sum of; X =
Individual Score; M = Mean of All Scores; n = Sample Size
(number of scores).
Standard Error
The standard error is an estimate of the
standard deviation of a statistic.
The standard error is important because it
is used to compute other measures, like
confidence intervals and margins of error.
The standard error is computed from known
sample statistics, and it provides an
unbiased estimate of the standard deviation
of the statistic.
Degree of Freedom
Degree of freedom refers to the number of
values which are free to vary after we have
given the number of restrictions imposed
upon the data.
It is commonly abbreviated by df. In
statistics, it is the number of values in a
study that are free to vary.
For example, if you have to take ten
different courses to graduate, and only ten
different courses are offered, then you have
nine degrees of freedom.
One-tailed and Two-tailed Tests

One-tailed Test: A test in which the

critical region is located in one tail of
the distribution of test of statistic is
called one-tailed test. There are two
types of one-tailed test in test of
hypothesis – (a) Right tailed test and
(b) Left tailed test.
The intubation success rate differs with
the age of the patient being treated (two-
sided).
The time to resuscitation from cardiac
arrest is lower for the intervention group
than for the control (one-sided).
There is an association between injury
type and whether or not the patient
received an IV in the prehospital
setting (two sided).
A test in which critical region is located
in right tail of the distribution of test
statistic is called right tailed test or
upper one tailed test.
A test in which critical region is located
in left tail of the distribution of test
statistic is called left tailed test or lower
one tailed test.
Two-tailed Test:

A test in which the critical region is

located in two tails of the distribution of
test of statistic is called two-tailed test.
Steps in Hypothesis
Problem Definition
Testing
Clearly state the null and
alternate hypotheses.

Choose the relevant test

and the appropriate
probability distribution
Determine the
Determine the
Choose the critical value degrees of
significance level
freedom

Compute Compare test statistic Decide if one-or

relevant test and critical value two-tailed test
statistic
Does the test statistic fall No
in the critical region? Do not reject null
Yes
Reject null
Hypothesis Testing

DATA ANALYSIS
OUTCOME
In Population Accept Null Reject Null
Hypothesis Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis Correct Decision Type I Error
True
Null Hypothesis Type II Error Correct
False Decision
x2 Significance Tables

The significance levels available on a x2 table

are usually 0.05, 0.01, and .001, which
means there is, respectively, only a 1 in 20
(0.05), a 1 in 100 (0.01), or a 1 in 1000
(0.001), probability of the event occurring by
chance if that x2 is obtained.
The values in the tables are called critical
values.
Chi-Square (X2) Critical Values In Use

For Chi-Square (X2) :

If the value of the test statistic you
have calculated is greater than the
value in the table (the critical value)
you decided to use, you can reject the
null hypothesis and accept the
alternative hypothesis.

H0: There is no relation between the number of peaks along a ridge and the time since exposure
 df P = 0.05 P = 0.01 P = 0.001
1 3.84 6.64 10.83

2 5.99 9.21 13.82

3 7.82 11.35 16.27

Chi-Square (X2) 4 9.49 13.28 18.47

5 11.07 15.09 20.52

Critical Values 6 12.59 16.81 22.46

7 14.07 18.48 24.32

8 15.51 20.09 26.13

Significance table of X2 values.
This is the critical value table we 9 16.92 21.67 27.88
will use in the examples below. 10 18.31 23.21 29.59

11 19.68 24.73 31.26

12 21.03 26.22 32.91

13 22.36 27.69 34.53

14 23.69 29.14 36.12

15 25.00 30.58 37.70

 Important

The chi square test can only be used on

observations that have the following
characteristics: Objects being counted are independent**

The frequency data must have a

The data must be in the form precise numerical value and must be
of frequencies organised into categories or groups.

The expected frequency in any one cell

of the table must be greater than 5. *

The total number of observations must be

greater than 20.

* See the exception next slide **There are statistics designed to test this assumption
Other Statistics

If any of the assumptions for X 2

are false, we cannot use X 2
However, there are test statistics for most
situations, and they are all similar in their use.

Once you know X 2 you can look up the

correct statistic and apply it
The x 2 formula

S means take the sum

Step 1. Write down the NULL
HYPOTHESIS (H0) and ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESES (Ha) and set the LEVEL OF
SIGNIFICANCE.

set the level of significance at 0.05.

Step 2: Construct a table with the information you have
observed. Use averages as data

Category 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 Row

Total
girls 9 13 10 10 8 50
boys 4 3 5 9 21 42
Column 13 16 15 19 29 92
Total

Note that although there are 3 cells in the table that are not greater than 5, these
are observed frequencies. It is only the expected frequencies that have to be
greater than 5.
Work out the expected frequency.

Expected frequency = row total x column total

Grand total

Eg: expected frequency for oaks in PL1 = (50 x 13) / 92 = 7.07

Category 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 Row

Total
girls 7.07
boys
Column
Total

You do the rest

The Expected Frequencies

Category 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 Row

Total
girls 7.07 8.70 8.15 10.33 15.76 50
boys 5.93 7.30 6.85 8.67 13.24 42
Column 13 16 15 19 29 92
Total
 For each of the cells calculate: (O – E)2
E

Eg: (9 – 7.07)2 / 7.07 = 0.53

Category 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 Row

Total
girls 0.53
boys
Column
Total

You do the rest

 (O – E)2
These are the
E

Category 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25

girls 0.53 2.13 0.42 0.01 3.82
boys 0.63 2.54 0.50 0.01 4.55

But x 2
= S (O – E) 2
E

So: Add up all of the above numbers to obtain

the value for chi square: x2 = 15.14.
 Now:

Look up the X2 value on the table in the slide

above. This will tell you whether to accept the
null hypothesis or reject it.
The number of degrees of freedom to use is: the number
of rows in the table minus 1, multiplied by the number of
columns minus 1. This is (2-1) x (5-1) = 1 x 4 = 4 degrees of
freedom.

We find that our answer of 15.14 is greater than the

critical value of 9.49 (for 4 degrees of freedom and a
significance level of 0.05) and so we reject the null
hypothesis.
Test Statistics, Probability, and
Significance Cont.
Test Statistic: The specific statistic (i.e., the tool)
that is chosen to test the null hypothesis. Examples
include F, t, r.
Obtained Value: The actual value obtained when
applying the test statistic to the data of interest. The
probability value associated with the obtained value
is p.
Critical Value: The critical value of the test statistic
that is associated with the chosen significance level
(alpha). If the obtained value is greater that the
critical value, the result is significant.

67
Steps in Hypothesis Testing for
Quantitative Research Designs
Hypothesis testing is a 4 phase
procedure:
Phase I: Research Hypotheses, Design, and Variables
Phase II: Statistical Hypotheses
Phase III: Hypotheses Testing
Phase IV: Decision/Interpretation

68
Phase I: Research Hypotheses,
Design, and Variables
1. State your research hypotheses.
2. Decide on a research design based on your
research problem, your hypotheses, and what
you really want to be able to say about your
results (e.g., if you want to say that A caused B,
you will need an experimental or time-series
design; if probable cause is sufficient, a quasi-
experimental design would be appropriate).
3. Operationally define your variables. Recall that
one variable can have more than one
operational definition.

69
Phase II: Statistical Hypotheses

1. Consider your chosen statistical

procedures.
2. Write one statistical null hypotheses
for each operational definition of
each variable that reflects that
statistical operations to be
performed.

70
Phase III: Hypotheses Testing

Complete the following steps for each statistical null hypothesis:

1. Select a significance level (alpha).

1. Compute the value of the test statistic (e.g., F, r, t).

1. Compare the obtained value of the test statistics with the critical value associated
with the selected significance level or compare the obtained p-value with the pre-
selected alpha value.

1. If the obtained value of the test statistic is greater than the critical value (or if the
obtained p-value is less than the pre-selected alpha value), reject the null
hypothesis. If the obtained value is less than the critical value of the test hypothesis,
fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Another way of looking it: If p is less than or equal to alpha, reject the
null hypothesis.

71
Phase IV: Decision/Interpretation
1. For each research hypothesis, consider the
decisions regarding the statistical null
hypotheses.
2. For each research hypothesis, consider
qualitative contextual information relating
potential plausibility.
3. Cautiously explain your findings with respect to
the research hypotheses.
4. List and discuss the limitations (threats to valid
inference).

72
For each study described below:
Identify the hypothesis or hypotheses.
Identify the research strategy being utilized
(i.e., descriptive, correlational, quasi-
experimental, experimental).
Identify the method used to collect the data
(e.g., naturalistic observation,
observational, case study, survey).
Identify the variable(s) of interest (e.g.,
independent, dependent).
Bushman and Anderson (2009) investigated whether or
not violent media caused people to be slower to react in
helping situations. College students were randomly
assigned to play a violent video game or a non-violent
video game for 20 minutes.
Afterwards, participants completed a questionnaire that
assessed their attitudes about how fun, interesting, and
violent the video game was. While they were
completing the questionnaire, a fight occurred outside
of their room. the voices they heard fighting were
recorded and the loud noises were made by the
researchers.
The fake fight ends with the aggressor slamming the
door and the victim groaning in pain. The moment the
aggressor supposed to exits researchers began timing
how long it took for participants to help the victim.
Dabbs and his colleagues (1995)
examined whether or not there were links
between rates of testosterone and
misbehavior in male prison inmates.
Researchers collected saliva samples
from 692 male inmates to measure levels
of testosterone.
They also examined data on the type of
crime for which each inmate was serving
time (e.g., robbery, assault, drug
offenses), and whether the inmate had
received a disciplinary report for violating
prison rules during his incarceration.
Aronson and Mills (1959) explored the link between effort
and dissonance reduction. College students volunteered to
join a group that would be meeting to discuss various
aspects of sex. Only women participated in this study.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of three
conditions (i.e., no initiation, mild initiation, or severe
initiation). The no initiation condition was considered the
control condition. Those women in the initiation
conditionswere asked to read romantic (i.e., mild initiation)
or pornographic (i.e., severe initiation) passages to a male
experimenter.
Afterwards they were told that the group discussion
about sex had already begun. Thus, to avoid disrupting
the group, researchers asked participants to listen to
the discussion via an intercom in the next room.
Although participants thought they were listening to a
live discussion, in reality, it was taped. Researchers
purposely made the discussion very boring. Afterwards,
participants rated how much they liked the discussion.
Consistent with the researchers’ predictions,
participants who exerted little or no effort to get into the
group did not enjoy the discussion as much as
participants who exerted effort.
Dunn, Dunn, and Bayduza (2007)
investigated popularity and loneliness
in elementary school children. They
believed that as children’s popularity
decreased the children’s loneliness
would increase. Children responded to
a questionnaire assessing loneliness in
school. To assess popularity, children
were given two lists that included the
names of their classmates. They were
asked to imagine that they would be
Using the first list, children were
instructed to “circle the names of three
people you would most like to have in
your group.” Using the second list,
children were instructed to “circle the
names of three people you would least
like to have in your group” From these
lists researchers were able to identify
the most/least popular children and
crate a map of class popularity.