INDUSTRIAL SAFETY & HEALTH

HEALTH
CHAPTER 5
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will
be able to;

 Define hazardous substance

 List the effects of hazardous substance
 Define Noise
 List method of noise control
 Define toxicology
 List out at least two types of physical
hazard that cause adverse health effect.
 List the dangers of physical hazard
 Understand the term of environmental
health
SUBTOPIC : EFFECT OF HAZARDOUS SUBTANCES

CHAPTER 6

3
 Everyday
application
 Not all calls to
industry involve
HM, but many
involve chemicals
 Drug research

4
HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL?

5
 WHAT IS A HAZARDOUS
MATERIAL?
 Gasoline
 Drain cleaner
 water

6
HEALTH

Hazardous substances

Chemicals and other substances

that can affect health, causing
illness or disease

7
HEALTH

Industrial hazardous substances

 Acids
 Caustic substances
 Disinfectants
 Glues
 Heavy metals
 Paint
 Pesticides
 Petroleum products
 Solvents
8
HEALTH

Effects of Hazardous subtances

1. Skin rashes, such as dermatitis

 Skin sensitisation – cause an allergic, such as nickel,
epoxy resin, chromium etc.
 Irritation – an aggravation of whatever tissue the
material comes in contact with.
2. Birth defects
 Teratogenesis – damage the developing foetus by
chemical thalidomide, ionizing radiation, rubella
3. Disorders of the lung, kidney or liver
 Damage to organ such as liver (solvent & alcohol) and
kidney (cadmium)
4. Nervous system disorders.
5. Chemical burns

Cont… 9
HEALTH
Effects of Hazardous subtances

6. Breathing problem
 Asphyxiants – interfere with oxygenation, lead to
suffocate.Irritation – an aggravation of whatever
tissue the material comes in contact with.
 Respiratory sensitisation – cause to allergic reaction
when breathe into the lungs, often called as
occupational asthma, eg Sulphur dioxide, some grain
and flour.

7. Cardiac sensitisation – use of chloroform, cyclopropane,

misuse of solvent, sniffing glue.

8. Cancer
 Mutagenesis –damage to genetic material, which will
affect some generation later.
 Carcinogenensis – cause malignant and tumour.

cont…… 10
HEALTH

Effects of Hazardous subtances

9. Narcotics and Anesthetics – cause to

unconciousness, which prevent the CNS from
its normal function.
10. Poisoning
11. Nausea and vomiting
12. Headache

11
TYPES OF EXPOSURE
 Acute
Chronic
 Long term
Short term (days
usuallyweeks,
very high
years)
levels
 Can have contact
Repeated
 Immediate effects
 Relatively low amounts.
In Delayed effectschronic effects are much

 many cases
 Full effectthan
different mayacute.
not be known for years

12
EFFECT :SIMPLE ASPHYXIANTS
 Displace Oxygen thereby causing
suffocation
 Not necessarily hazardous
 CO2
 N, Helium
 Argon, Neon
 Methane

13
EFFECT :CHEMICAL ASPHYXIANTS

 Interfere with the cellular transit of

oxygen
 Are, intrinsically hazardous
 CO
 Cyanide

14
EFFECT: CORROSIVES
 Cause irreversible tissue death
 Can affect
 Skin
 Eyes
 Mucous membranes
 Examples include
 Alkalis
 Acids

15
EFFECT: IRRITANTS
 Cause temporary (maybe severe)
inflammation of the
 Eyes, Skin and respiratory tract.
 Symptoms may result from chronic or
acute exposure
 Examples include;
 Ammonia
 Chlorine

16
EFFECT:SENSITIZERS
 Cause allergic reactions after repeated
exposure.
 Tend to become worse over time and
more frequent exposures.
 Examples include;
 Formaldehyde
 Mercury
 Nickel;

17
EFFECT:CARCINOGENS
 Cause cancer
 Some have been definitely linked with
cancer in humans.
 Some are only suspected.
 Examples include:
 Coal Tar
 Asbestos

18
EFFECT:MUTAGENS
 Toxins that cause genetic changes
 Material in both sperm & egg may be
affected
 Examples include;
 ETO
 Ionizing radiation
 HO
 Benzene

19
EFFECT:TERATOGENS
 Cause malformations in unborn children
 Examples include
 Anesthetic gasses
 Organic mercury compounds
 Ionizing radiation

20
SUBTOPIC: Noise at Workplace
CHAPTER 5
Anatomy of Ear
 3 parts
◦ Outer ear
◦ Middle ear
◦ Inner ear
 Cochlea- hearing apparatus
 Vestibular- balancing of the body
Psthophysiology of hearing
 How we hear?
◦ Air conduction
◦ Bone conduction.
◦ Conductive hearing loss
◦ Sensorineural hearing loss
What is Noise?

Unwanted, bothersome or painful sound

is more than just a pain in the ear...

it is harmful to your health.

Measuring unit – Decibel (dB)

Effects of noise
 Noise definition- unwanted sound.
 Noise unit- intensity –decibel (dB),

frequency(hertz –hz).
 Type of sound based on frequency
◦ Infrasonic (0-20 Hz) ,
◦ Audible (20-16,000)
◦ Ultrasonic (> 16,000)
Factors contributing to noise hazard

 Noise spectrum
 Overall noise exposure
 Duration of exposure
 Individual susceptibility.
Type of noise

 Steady state noise

 Intermittent noise
 Fluctuation noise
 Impulse noise
Effect of noise
 Noise induced  Other effect
hearing loss ◦ Task performances
◦ Temporary (due ◦ Intrusion of privacy
threshold Shift: TTS)
◦ tinnitus’
◦ Permanent (due to
Permanent threshold ◦ Blood pressure
Shift: PTS) ◦ Fatique
 Rupture of ear drum ◦ Bood sugar
 Dislocation of ossicle ◦ Gastric acid
 Speech interference secretions
 Annoyance
Record Keeping
 Name  Keep record for
 Job 5years after stop
 Location of work.
employee
 Base line

audiogram
 Occupational

history
 Medical

examination
• Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)
– Average airborne concentration /noise
dose concentration that an employee
can be exposed to for an 8hr period
– Legal limit allowed in the workplace
– Most were adopted from TLV’s
Permissible Exposure Limit
 Continous sound - Action level 85 dB
 Continuous sound – should not more

than 90dB
 Impulse Noise should not more than

140 dB
Noise Exposure Program – 90 dBA 8 hour
TWA(Equivalent Exposure Concept)
Hearing Conservation Program – 85 dBA 8 hour
TWA
Noise Measuring Equipment
Sound Level Meters (SLM)
Continuous on-mobile sources

Noise Dosimeters
Mobile/variable
noise sources
NOISE METER

Common City Sounds

Decibels (dBA)
quiet home 20
normal talking 40
ringing telephone 60
air conditioner 75

*Sustained exposure to noise

over 90 decibels can cause
permanent hearing loss.

shouting
subway train 100
honking horns
jack hammers
loud music 120
jet take-off
Table 1 OSHA PERMISSIBLE NOISE EXPOSURE
29 CFR 1910.95
Sound Level, dB Duration of Exposure, hours

80 32
85 16
90 8
95 4
100 2
105 1
110 0.5
115 0.25
120 0.125
125 0.063

130 0.031
140 peak level impulse
ESTIMATION OF NOISE EXPOSURE
 TABLE 2 Factors for Combining Two Sound
Sources

Procedures
 Find the difference in decibels between two

sound sources L1 and L2 (column 1).

 Add the number in column 2 corresponding

to the difference in column 1 to the highest

of the two sources to find the resulting
combined sound level Ls.
 ESTIMATION OF NOISE EXPOSURE
 A logarithmic scale describes the range of sound measures.
 Decibels (dB) are dimensionless ratios of a measured value of
sound relative to some reference value.
 For sound intensity, represent the decibel units of sound
intensity, LI,

L= 10 log10[ I I Io ]

 Because of logarithmic scaling, sound pressure levels in

decibels from two or more sources cannot be added
arithmetically to determine the resulting sound pressure level.
 The data in Table 2 helps determine the resulting sound
pressure level from two sources
 ESTIMATION OF NOISE EXPOSURE
TABLE 2 Factors for Combining Two Sound Sources
(1) (2) (1) (2)
Difference between two Amount to add to greater Difference between two sound Amount to add to greater
sound sources (dB) sound source (dB) sources (dB) sound source (dB)
4.8–5.1 1.2
0.0–0.1 3.0
5.2–5.6 1.1
0.2–0.3 2.9
5.7–6.1 1.0
0.4–0.5 2.8
6.2–6.6 0.9
0.6–0.7 2.7

0.8–0.9 2.6 6.7–7.2 0.8

1.0–1.2 2.5 7.3–7.9 0.7

1.3–1.4 2.4
8.0–8.6 0.6
1.5–1.6 2.3
8.7–9.6 0.5
1.7–1.9 2.2
9.7–10.7 0.4
2.0–2.1 2.1

2.2–2.4 2.0 10.8–12.2 0.3

2.5–2.7 1.9 12.3–14.5 0.2

2.8–3.0 1.8
14.6–19.3 0.1
3.1–3.3 1.7
19.4 or more 0.0
3.4–3.6 1.6

3.7–4.0 1.5

4.1–4.3 1.4
 Example 1
A worker exposed to noise at a workstation that consist of four sources, resulted the
following readings for various time periods during the 8-hour shift. Calculate the
cumulative noise exposure for employee to determine whether the Action Levels and
maximum Permissible Exposure Levels have been exceeded.
MACHINE NO NOISE LEVEL Answer
1 86 dB Differences New noise level

86 – 86 = 0 86 + 3 = 89
2 86 dB
89 – 87 = 2.0 89 + 2.1 = 91.1
3 87 dB
91.1 – 78 = 13.1 91.1 + 0.2 =
4 78 dB 91.3

Answer
Step 1 : Use table 2 to estimate the differences in noise exposure.
Find the difference in decibels between two sound sources L1 and L2 (column 1).
Add the number in column 2 corresponding to the difference in column 1 to the
highest of the two sources to find the resulting combined sound level L s.

Step 2: Use table 1 to make decision whether the worker expose to noise
below /exceed the PEL
ESTIMATION OF NOISE EXPOSURE
 Time-weighted average noise (TWAN) helps
determine if the exposures in Table 1 are
exceeded:

TWAN = C1/T1 + C2/T2 +……..Cn/Tn

where
Cx is the total time of exposure at a specified noise level and
Tx is the total time of exposure permitted at the specified noise
level.

 If the value of TWAN is greater than l.0, the

exposure exceeds the OSHA limits.
Example 2
A worker is exposed to the following:

Noise Level (dBA1) Duration (hr)

110 0.25
100 0.5
 Is the OSHA limit exceeded?
90 1.5
Answer
 Step 1: Use TWAN = C1/T1 + C2/T2 +……..Cn/Tn

 Step 2: Refer to Table 1 for value of T

 Step3: TWAN = 0.25/0.5 + 0.5/2 + 1.5/8 =0.938

 Step 4: Decision making

Because 0.938 is less than l.0, the exposure is allowable.

 OSHA considers continuous noise as that involving noise level

maxima that occur at intervals of 1 s or less.
ESTIMATION OF NOISE EXPOSURE
 Noise dose, D, measures varying exposures over a period of time and is equivalent to
an exposure of 90dBA for an 8-hr period. OSHA exposure standards in Table 2
indicate that this is the maximum sound level permitted for an 8-hr period

 Higher levels exceed the allowable dose.

 Noise dose in percent is

D = 100 [C/T]
where
C is the total length of the workday in hours
T is the reference duration in hours for a measured A-weighted sound level, L, in decibels.

 T is derived from an expansion of the OSHA exposure limits (Table 2) and is computed as

T = 8 /2 (L-90)/5
ESTIMATION OF NOISE EXPOSURE
 When noise exposure for a work shift consists of two or
more periods of noise at different levels, the total noise
dose over the workday is given by

D = 100[C 1/T 1 + C 2/T 2 +……..C n/T n]

 The 8-hr TWAN sound level, in decibels, can be

computed from noise dose:

TWAN = 16.61 log10 [ D/100] + 90

Example 3
 A worker is exposed to a 107dBA constant noise source
during a 7-hr shift. What is the noise dose?
 Answer
◦ Step 1: Calculate the reference duration
T=8/2 (107-90)/5 = 8/2 (2.34) T = 8 /2 (L-90)/5
T = 0.758

◦ Step 2: Calculate the nose dose using the above T

D = 100[ 7/0.758 ] = 923%

◦ Step 3: Decision making. Noise Dose 923% ; above

the allowable noise dose. Allowable noise
dose is 100%.
NOISE CONTROL

Engineering Control

- modification or replacement of equipment, or related

physical change at the noise source or along the
transmission path that reduces the noise level at the
employee's ear

- Attenuation Method

Reducing sound intensity

Porous mediums, air, humidity
Used muffler or silencer

- e.g: mufflers on heavy equipment exhausts or on air

release valves
Muffler

Silencer
NOISE CONTROL

Attenuation Method
Noise control : Enclosures
NOISE CONTROL

Administrative Control

- changes in the work schedule or operations which reduce

noise exposure
e.g: increasing the distance, rotation of jobs between
workers in the high noise area

- Post signboard at the entrance to any work area where

noise levels equal or exceed 85 dBA

- Supply hearing protection to the employee at no cost to

the employees.

- Enforcement of the wearing of hearing protection in the

designated areas using established disciplinary procedures.
NOISE CONTROL

Hearing protective devices (HPD)

-Any device that can be worn to reduce the level of sound

entering the ear [noise greater than 85 dBA sound levels.]; Noise
Reduction Rate (NRR)

Formable Custom Molded Earplugs Premolded Earplugs

Earmuffs
NOISE CONTROL

Hearing protective devices (HPD)

NOISE CONTROL

Hearing protective devices (HPD)

Good Fit Improper Fit

Hearing Conservation/ Management Program

1. Carry out Noise Monitoring/Mapping

◦ To identify area/equipment in the workplace is noisy
◦ To identify workers with exposures above action level or
PEL

2. Hazard Communication and training (repeated

every 2 years)
◦ To put up sign, hence create awareness of the noisy area

3. Noise Control
◦ Engineering Control / Isolation / Enclosure
◦ Administrative Control

4. Carry out Audiometric test (baseline)

◦ To provide indication of ones hearing ability, hence can
obtain a baseline measure of a person at the time.
Hearing Conservation/ Management Program (cont…)

5. Personal Protective Equipment Program

◦ Selection of PPE, need to consider characteristic of noise,
frequency of noise, comfort to user, communication and
medical conditions
◦ Type of PPE : helmets with hearing protection, ear plug,
ear muffs.

6. Periodical Medical Surveillance (Audiometric Test)

◦ To check the effectiveness of control measure taken to
reduce the risk
◦ To record the significant shifts in threshold

7. Record keeping [term of employment and

additional 5 years)
CHAPTER 5
SUBTOPIC : TOXICOLOGY
What is a Poison?

All substances are poisons;

there is none that is not a poison.
The right dose
differentiates a poison and a remedy.

Paracelsus (1493-1541)
Are all substances toxic?

YES!
 All are toxic to some quantifiable degree
 Sugar has an LD50 of 30,000 mg/kg
 The foresters favorite – ethanol has an
LD50 of only 13,700 mg/kg
 Even water has a recognized LD50 of
slightly greater than 80,000 mg/kg
Principles of Toxicology
Principles of Toxicology

Toxicology

Adverse effects may occur:

 in many forms, from immediate death
to subtle changes not realized until
months or years later. 
 at various levels within the body,
an organ, a type of cell, or a specific
biochemical. 
Principles of Toxicology
Terminology and definitions
Dose

The amount of chemical entering the body

This is usually given as

mg of chemical/kg of body weight = mg/kg

The dose is dependent upon

 The environmental concentration
 The properties of the toxicant
 The frequency of exposure
 The length of exposure
 The exposure pathway
Measures of Toxicity: Lethal
Dose

LD50
The amount (dose) of a chemical which
produces death in 50% of a population of
test animals to which it is administered by
any of a variety of methods

mg/kg
Normally expressed as milligrams of substance
per kilogram of animal body weight
Measures of Toxicity:Lethal Concentration

LC50
The concentration of a chemical in an
environment (generally air or water) which
produces death in 50% of an exposed population
of test animals in a specified time frame

mg/L
Normally expressed as milligrams of substance per
liter of air or water (or as ppm)
LD50 Comparison

Chemical LD50 (mg/kg)

Ethyl Alcohol 10,000
Sodium Chloride 4,000
Ferrous Sulfate 1,500
Morphine Sulfate 900
Strychnine Sulfate 150
Nicotine 1
Black Widow 0.55
Curare 0.50
Rattle Snake 0.24
Dioxin (TCDD) 0.001
Botulinum toxin 0.0001
definition
 Also called Threshold
Permissible Exposure dose – the lowest point
Limit – OSHA under dose-response
definition curve
TLV
is
Threshold Limit Value

refers to airborne concentrations that

correspond to conditions under which no
adverse effects are normally expected
during a worker’s lifetime.

Establish by ACGIH ( American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienist)

Refer to TABLE 2-8 pg 56-57 of Crowl and Louvar for TLVs and
PELs of variety chemicals substances.
TLV-TWA Time-weighted average for a normal 8-hour
Threshold limit value –time workday or 40-hour work week, to which
weighted average nearly all workers can be exposed, day
after day, without adverse effect.

TLV- STEL The maximum concentration to which

Threshold limit value – short
term exposure limit.
workers can be exposed for a period of 15
minutes continuously without suffering
(1) intolerable irritation,
(2) chronic or irreversible tissue change
(3) Narcosis of sufficient degree to increase
accident proneness, impair self-rescue.
With at least 60 minutes exposure periods &
Provided daily TLV-TWA is not exceeded.

TLV-C Ceiling limit. The concentration that

Threshold limit value – ceiling should not be exceeded, even
limit instantaneously.
 IDLH
 The amount of toxicant that IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO LIFE AND HEALTH
(IDLH).
 Exposure to this quantity and above should be avoided under any
circumstances.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY
Factors Influencing Toxicity
Type Examples
Factors related to the Composition (salt, base, acid),
chemical physical characteristics (particle size,
liquid, gas, solid),
physical properties (volatility, solubility,
ignitability),
presence of impurities,
breakdown products
Factors related to Dose, concentration,
exposure route of exposure & exposure duration
Factors related to the Age, gender, heredity, immunology,
person exposed nutrition, hormones, disease
Factors related to the Carrier (air, water, food, soil),
environment chemicals present (synergism,
antagonism), temperature, air pressure
Individual Susceptibility
--there can be 10-30 fold difference in response to a
toxicant in a population

 Genetics-species,
strain variation,
interindividual variations (yet still can
extrapolate between mammals--similar
biological mechanisms)
 Gender (gasoline nephrotox in male mice only)
 Age--young (old too)
 underdeveloped excretory mechanisms
 underdeveloped biotransformation enzymes
 underdeveloped blood-brain barrier
Individual Susceptibility

 Age--old
 changes in excretion and metabolism rates, body fat
 Nutritional status
 Health conditions
 Previous or Concurrent Exposures
 additive --antagonistic
 synergistic
ROUTES OF EXPOSURE
Routes of Exposure

 Inhalation
 Ingestion
 Absorption through the skin
 Less common
 Injection

 Absorption through eyes and ear canals

 Inhalation

 Most common route of entry into body

 Therefore our area of highest concern
 Lungs are designed for efficient gas
exchange between the air and bloodstream
 Lungs have up to 1000 square feet of
exchange area (about 32 feet by 32 feet)
 Normal day’s breathing volume: 8 cu ft
 Therefore great potential for toxins to enter
bloodstream
 ACB Respiratory System: 91, 96
 Skin Absorption (2nd most important route)

 Skin surface area is about 20 square feet (4.5 ft by 4.5 ft)

 Compare to 1000 sq ft for lungs
 Materials can be absorbed into blood stream just below the
skin surface or toxins can be stored in fat deposits
 Obviously workers can easily expose their hands into solvents,
oils, chemicals, etc., plus these materials can be sprayed or
rubbed on other parts of the body
 Many chemicals are either soluble in water or in oil (fat, lipid)
 The skin easily absorbs lipid-soluble materials
Solvents
 Water-soluble materials are not easily absorbed
Lipid layer on skin provides a barrier
Absorption into eyes and ears

 Much less common but possible

 Moist surfaces
Ingestion (3rd most important route)

 Ingestionis not usually intentional

 Unintentional ingestion
 Failure to wash hands and face before meals
 Eating/drinking in areas where airborne
hazards exist
 Lighting cigarettes with dirty hands
 Application of cosmetics
 Use of chewing tobacco or gum in
contaminated areas
Ingestion

 The digestive tract is moist and designed

for efficient absorption
 Surface area of intestines is greatly
increased by small projections (villi)
 Thin surfaces, highly vascularized
 Materials easily transferred to
bloodstream
 ACB Digestive System: 98, 104
Injection

 Less common
 Possible hazards
 Outdoor work, construction sites,
hazardous waste sites, plants, animals,
reptiles, insects, abrasions, puncture
wounds, cuts, needle sticks
Exposure: Duration

Acute < 24hr usually 1 exposure

Subacute 1 month repeated doses
Subchronic 1-3month repeated doses
Chronic > 3month repeated doses

Over time, the amount of chemical in the body can

build up, it can redistribute, or it can overwhelm
repair and removal mechanisms
 ADME:
Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and
Excretion
 Once a living organism has been exposed to a
toxicant, the compound must get into the body and
to its target site in an active form in order to cause
an adverse effect.
 The body has defenses:
 Membrane barriers
passive and facilitated diffusion, active
transport
 Biotransformation enzymes, antioxidants
 Elimination mechanisms
 Absorption:
ability of a chemical to enter the blood
(blood is in equilibrium with tissues)

 Inhalation--readily absorb gases into the blood

stream via the alveoli. (Large alveolar surface, high
blood flow, and proximity of blood to alveolar air)

 Ingestion--absorption through GI tract stomach

(acids), small intestine (long contact time, large
surface area--villi; bases and transporters for
others)
 1st Pass Effect (liver can modify)
 Dermal--absorption through epidermis (stratum
corneum), then dermis; site and condition of skin
 Distribution:
the process in which a chemical agent translocates
throughout the body

 Blood carries the agent to and from its site of

action, storage depots, organs of transformation,
and organs of elimination
 Rate of distribution (rapid) dependent upon
 blood flow
 characteristics of toxicant (affinity for the tissue,
and the partition coefficient)
 Distribution may change over time
Distribution:
Storage and Binding
• Storage in Adipose tissue--Very lipophylic
compounds (DDT) will store in fat. Rapid
mobilization of the fat (starvation) can
rapidly increase blood concentration
• Storage in Bone--Chemicals analogous to
Calcium--Fluoride, Lead, Strontium
• Binding to Plasma proteins--can displace
endogenous compounds. Only free is
available for adverse effects or excretion
How toxicants are eliminated from
biological organisms?
Excretion: Toxicants are eliminated from
the body by several routes

 Urinary excretion
 water soluble products are filtered out of the
blood by the kidney and excreted into the urine
 Exhalation
 Volatile compounds are exhaled by breathing
 Biliary Excretion via Fecal Excretion
 Compounds can be extracted by the liver and
excreted into the bile. The bile drains into the
small intestine and is eliminated in the feces.
 Milk Sweat Saliva
Metabolism: adverse effect depends on the
concentration of active compound at the target site over
time

 The process by which the administered chemical

(parent compounds) are modified by the organism by
enzymatic reactions.
 1o objective--make chemical agents more water
soluble and easier to excrete
 decrease lipid solubility  decrease amount at target
 increase ionization  increase excretion rate  decrease toxicity

 Bioactivation--Biotransformationcan result in the

formation of reactive metabolites
Biotransformation & Excretion of Toxins

 Water soluble substances: easily to eliminate

 Lipid soluble substances are difficult to eliminate
 Biotransformation: process by which materials are
chemically altered to make them easier to eliminate
(as in lipid soluble substances)
 Biotransformation and excretion through the liver
 Filtration and excretion through the kidneys
 Therefore, liver and kidneys are useful in eliminating
toxins from the body, but on the other hand become
target organs of toxins because of their nature.
 Biotransformation (Metabolism)

 Can drastically Compound Without With

effect the rate of Metabolism Metabolism
clearance of
compounds Ethanol 4 weeks 10mL/hr

 Can occur at any

Phenobarbital 5 months 8hrs
point during the
compound’s DDT infinity Days to weeks
journey from
absorption to
excretion
Biotransformation
 Key organs in biotransformation
 LIVER (high)
 Lung, Kidney, Intestine (medium)
 Others (low)
 Biotransformation Pathways
 Phase I--make the toxicant more water
soluble
 Phase II--Links with a soluble
endogenous agent (conjugation)
 Evaluation

 Determinethe extent and degree of

employee exposure to toxicants and physical
hazard in the work place
 Evaluation exposure to volatile toxicants by monitoring

tw
A direct method for determining worker 1
exposure is by continuous concentration TWA   C (t )dt
data C(t) the TWA (Time Weighted Average 80
Concentration) is given by

If we assume the conc. Ci is fixed,

over the period of time, TWA is C1T1  C 2T2  C 3T3  ...  C nTn
TWA 
computed by 8
Monitoring system has its drawback;-

1) The workers move in and out of the exposed workplace

2) The concentration of the toxicant may vary at different location in the work area
 n
If > one chemical is present, the Ci
combined exposures from multiple
toxicants with different TLV-TWA is:

i 1 (TLV  TWA ) i
If it > 1, the workers are over exposed n = total no. of toxicants
Ci = the conc. of chemical species I
With respect to the other toxicants
(TLV-TWA)i= TLV-TWA for chemical
species i
The mixture TLV-TWA can be computed n

from C i
(TLV  TWA )mix  n
i 1
Ci
 (TLV  TWA )
i 1 i

Ifthe conc. of the toxicants in the

mixture exceeds this amount, then the
workers are over exposed
Example:
Air contains 5 ppm of diethylamine (TLV-TWA of 10 ppm),
20 ppm of cyclohexanol (TLV-TWA of 50 ppm), and 10 ppm of propylene oxide (TLV-TWA of
20 ppm). What is the mixture TLV-TWA and has this level been exceeded?
n
Total mixture concentration is 5 + 20 + 10 = 35 ppm. C i

Thus, the workers are overexposed . (TLV  TWA )mix  n

i 1
Ci
 (TLV  TWA )
i 1 i

5  20  10
(TLV  TWA )mix   25 ppm
5 20 10
 
10 50 10

Alternatively, compare with the other approach.

n
Ci

i 1 (TLV  TWA ) i
=5/10 + 20 /50 + 10 / 20 =1.40

If it > 1, the workers are over exposed.

Because this quantity is greater than 1, the TLV-TWA has been exceeded
CONTROL MEASURE

Entry Route Entry Organ Method of Control

Enforcement of rules on
Mouth or
Ingestion eating, drinking and
stomach
smoking
Ventilation, repirators,
Inhalation Mouth or nose hoods and other personal
protective equipment

Injection Cuts in skin Proper protective clothing

Dermal
Skin Proper protective clothing
absorption
SUBTOPIC : ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
CHAPTER 5
Environmental health
 Is the branch of public health that is
concerned with all aspects of the natural
and built environment that may affect
human health.
 Other terms that concern or refer to the
discipline of environmental health include
environmental public health and
environmental health and protection.
Objectives of Environmental Health
1. To achieve a sustainable basis for health.

2. To ensure an environment that promotes health.

3. To make individuals and organizations aware of their responsibility for health and its
environmental basis.

4. To achieve safe, sustainable and health-enhancing human environments, protected from

biological, chemical and physical hazards, and secure from the adverse effects of global
and local environmental threats.

5. To facilitate incorporation of effective health dimensions into regional and global

policies affecting health and environment, and into national development policies and
action plans for environment and health, including legal and regulatory frameworks
governing management of the human environment.
Environmental branches / health concerns include:
1. Safe drinking water.

2. Food safety, including in agriculture, transportation, food

processing, wholesale and retail distribution and sale.

3. Air quality, including both ambient outdoor air and indoor

air quality, which also comprises concerns about
environmental tobacco smoke.
4. Climate change and its effects on health.

5. Vector control, including the control of mosquitoes,

rodents, flies, cockroaches and other animals that may
transmit pathogens.

6. Radiological health, including exposure to ionizing radiation

from X-rays or radioactive isotopes.
7. Solid waste management, including landfills, recycling
facilities, composting and solid waste transfer stations.

8. Hazardous materials management, including hazardous

waste management, contaminated site remediation, the
prevention of leaks from underground storage tanks and
the prevention of hazardous materials releases to the
environment and responses to emergency situations
resulting from such releases.
9.
10. Liquid waste disposal, including city wastewater
treatment plants and on-site waste water disposal
systems, such as septic tank systems and chemical
toilets.

11. Medical waste management and disposal.

SUBTOPIC : PYSICAL HAZARDS
CHAPTER 5
HEAT

You don’t have to work in the desert to suffer from too much heat on the
job. Even in a moderate climate, many operations on construction sites
are hot and uncomfortable.
 Health - Heat
Heat Stress cause safety problem and health problem.

Safety Problem
 Low alertness, attention & vigilance
 Poor coordination and task performance

May lead to an accident to occur

Health - Heat

Health Problem
 Heat Stroke - victim skin is hot & usually dry because
sweating has stopped. Body temperature is high (40 o C
++)
 Heat Exhaustion - victim is pale or flushed,
experiences weakness or fatigue. Body temperature is
usually normal or only slightly elevated.
 Heat Cramps - caused by low salt level in muscles.
Result of salt loss from heavy sweating and also
drinking large quantities of water which tends to dilute
 Heat rash – if hot and humid, sweat is not easily
removed from the surface of the skin by evaporation
and the skin remains wet most of the time.
HEALTH

What does heat stress do to your body?

First symptom-heat cramps. Muscle pain or muscle

spasms. Most common in the arms,
Heat exhaustion can follow. Your whole body
(especially your circulatory system) is extremely
stressed. Some possible symptoms are:
— Pale, flushed face and neck
— Clammy skin
— Heavy sweating
— Fatigue— Shortness of breath
— Headache, dizziness, or fainting
— Nausea and vomiting
— Rapid heartbeat and breathing
What signs and symptoms might you notice if your
body is too hot?

Tired and less mentally alert. This increases the danger of

accidents.

Sweat. The body produces sweat so the evaporation will cool

you off. Sweating isn’t as effective if the air is very humid,
because not as much sweat evaporates.

Heat rash. Sweat glands swell and get plugged up.

Sunburn. Sunburn can be painful and may even lead to skin

cancer.
HEALTH

What’s the best treatment for the different stages of

heat stress?

Heat cramps — Stop work, drink fluids, and rest in a cool area.
Drinking electrolyte solutions may also help.

Heat exhaustion — Give first aid by moving the person to a cool

place to rest. Remove as much clothing as possible. Give the
person water. Drinking electrolyte solutions may also help.
Don’t allow the person to get chilled, and treat for shock if
necessary. Get medical help.

Heat stroke — Call 911 to get an ambulance immediately.

Immerse the person in cool water or ice.
What precautions do we need to take on the site to
prevent heat stress?
 Work organization – reorganize work so that work can
be done in the cooler part of the day and cooler areas,
for example in shaded areas. Assign strenuous work
during cooler parts of the day. Give new hires who are
not acclimatized, lighter work during their first week .
Rotate workers in strenuous, hot jobs so no one is
exposed too long.

 Take frequent breaks an air-conditioned or shaded

area.

 Work environment - work in the shaded areas for

example under permanent shade with proper air
movement for example using extraction and
ventilation equipment. Shield or enclose sources of
heat (like furnaces) to minimize radiant heat.
What precautions do we need to take on the site
to prevent heat stress? Cont…..

 Cool drinking water - provide ready access to cool drinking

water and encourage drinks of 100 - 200ml of water at
frequent intervals to fluid lost in sweating. Drink a lot of
cool water (or an electrolyte solution). You may need a
quart an hour or more, depending on conditions. Drink even
if you don’t feel thirsty.

 Suitable work clothing – loose clothing of light colored from

woven natural fabrics to assist evaporation of sweat. Wear
wide brimmed attachments on helmets to protect from
direct sunlight. Provide water-cooled garments or ice-packet
vests where necessary.

 Keep first aid supplies and equipment available.

Vibration Hazard.

 Closely associated with noise hazards

 affects the hands, arms or whole body; if handle heavy
equipment.
 Lead to motion sickness to spinal injury; called hand-
arm vibration syndrome (HAV).
 fine blood vessels of the fingers may become
increasingly sensitive to spasm (white fingers). May also
produce injuries of the joints, of the hands, elbows and
shoulders.
Control Measures for Vibration Hazards

 Limit the employee exposure;

no more than 4 hours per day, two days per week.
 Use Low-vibration tools
 Change the employee work habits
 Wear properly fitted thick gloves that absorb vibration
 Taking periodic breaks (recommended 10 minutes every hour)
 Keeping warm
 Using vibration – absorbing floor mats & seat covers.
 Keeping tools properly maintained (replacing vibration-absorbing pads
regularly
 Using a loose grip on the tool & holding it away from the body
Radiation Hazards
reference book : Goetsch. Occupational Safety and Health for technologist, Engineers & managers.

 Two categories:
 Ionizing & Nonionizing
Ionizing Radiation
 Such as x-rays and radio active isotopes
 Adverse effect :genetic changes, malformation, cancer, leukemia, depilation,
ulceration, sterility and in extreme cases death
UV Radiation
 affects the eyes, causing intense conjunctivitis and
keratitis (welder’s flash)
 Symptoms are redness of the eyes and pain
End of chapter 5.