ADAPTIVE AND PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS

EPIDERMIS:
Origin
Structure
Hairs
Trichomes
Bulliform cells
The functions of bulliform cells are:
1. The bulliform cells help to unroll the leaf during development
2. Periodical turgor development in the bulliform cells causes the
opening and closing of mature leaves.
3. These cells act as water reservoir and
4. Due to silica deposition inside the bulliform cells and
cuticularisation of their outer walls the leaves become
mechanically rigid.
The functions of epidermis are:

1. The thickly cuticularised epidermis gives protection to the inner tissues

from different external forces and gives resistance to insect and
pathogen attack.
2. Thick cuticle prevents plants from dessication.
3. The specialised bulliform cells of the epidermis help in water storage,
unrolling of developing leaves and the opening and closing movements
of mature leaves.
4. Velamen of orchid root and epiblema with root hairs help in absorption.
5. The epidermis, in some cases, store water and unwanted materials and
food.
6. The wax deposition, suberisation, cutinisation etc are the processes of
secretion done by the epidermis.
7. The epidermal cells perform the function of perception of external
stimuli and respond accordingly.
STOMATA:
Occurrence
Position
Frequency
Stomatal Index
Structure of Stomata (Guard cells and Subsidiary Cells)
Origin
Types of Stomata:
1. Anomocytic (irregular) or Ranunculaceous type:
In this type of stomatal complex the subsidiary cells are
indistinguishable in shape and size from the neighbouring epidermal
cells and, at the same time, the number and arrangement of subsidiary
cells may not be definite (e.g., Cucurbita, Capparidaceae, Malvaceae,
Papaveraceae etc.).
2. Anisocytic (unequal) or Cruciferous type:
These stomata remain encircled by three subsidiary cells of which one
is distinctly smaller or larger in size than the other two. The
subsidiary cells may not be very distinct from ordinary epidermal
cells (e.g., Petunia, Solanum, Sedum, Nicotiana etc.).
3. Paracytic (parallel) or Rubiaceous type:
This type of stoma usually has two subsidiary cells parallely
oriented to the long axis of guard cells and the stomatal pore (e.g.,
Phaseolus, Arachis, Psoralea etc.).
4. Hemiparacytic:
There is a single subsidiary cell parallely placed to the long axis
of the pore in the stomatal complex. This subsidiary cell may be long or
short in length in contrast to the guard cells (e.g., Tetracentron)
5. Diacytic (cross walled) or Labiatous or Caryophyllaceous type:
In this type of stomatal complex there are two large subsidiary
cells. The common walls of them remain perpendicular to the long axis of
the guard cells as well as that of the stomatal aperture (e.g., Hygrophila,
Dianthus etc.).
6. Actinocytic:
In this stomatal complex the two guard cells remain surrounded
by four or more radially arranged elongated subsidiary cells (e.g.,
Ancistrocladus).
7. Cyclocytic:
In this type the stoma remains surrounded by four or more
subsidiary cells arranged in a narrow ring around the guard cells (e.g.,
Lumnitzera, Laguncularia etc).
8. Tetracytic:
Tetracytic type shows four subsidiary cells surrounding the
guard cells. Of them, two subsidiary cells remain on the polar sides and
the other two on the lateral sides of the guard cells (e.g., Rhoeo)
9. Hexacytic:
In hexacytic type six subsidiary cells surround the guard cells.
Two of them are situated on the two polar sides and rest four subsidiary
cells are found to occur on the two lateral sides in parallel to the long axis
of the guard cells and the aperture.
10. Graminaceous:
Metcalfe and Chalk (1950) described this type of stomata found
in monocot leaves. In this type the guard cells are dumb-bell shaped or
osteate whose two attached ends are bulbous and the middle parts are
much narrower and straight resembling dumb-bells. In the narrow
portion the cell wall is highly thickened whereas the bulbous ends are
relatively thin walled. The subsidiary cells occur parallel to the long axis
of the pore. The subsidiary cells of Zea mays are triangular shaped.
ADAPTATIONS IN HYDROPHYTES AND XEROPHYTES

Morphological adaptations in Hydrophytes

1. Roots may completely be lacking (wolffia, utricularia) or feebly

developed (hydrilla).
2. Root hairs are absent (lemna) or feebly developed.
3. Roots caps may be absent or root pockets are present
(Eichornia).
4. Roots are generally fibrous type and adventitious, unbranched
or sparsely branched.
5. The stem is long, slender, weak, spongy and flexible type in
submerged hydrophytes.
6. The stem is short, stoloniferous, thick, and spongy, with extensive
parenchyma in free floating plants.
7. The leaves may arrange in alternate phyllotaxy (potamogeton) or
opposite (cabwoman) or whorled (hydrilla).
8. Stomata are present on the upper epidermis which is in contact
with air and gaseous exchange takes place through this stomata and
lower surface is in touch with water.
9. The upper leaf surface in floating leaves are coated with wax to
prevent wilting.
10. The leaves of many partially submerged plants show hetrophylly
(presence of different types of leaves). E.g. Ranunculus aquatilis
11. The entire plant body is covered with mucilage.
12. The flowers and seeds are less abundant.
13. Reproduction is mainly by vegetative methods.
Anatomical adaptations
1. Excessive development of parenchyma and elaborate system of
arenchyma (air space)
2. Poor development of vascular and mechanical tissues.
3. Cuticle absent or poorly developed
4. Stomata are completely absent in submerged leaves.
5. Chlorophyll found in all the tissues.
6. Mucilage canals and mucilage cells are present which secrete
mucilage to protect the plant body.
7. The reserve food is in the form of starch grains which occur in
cortex and pith.
8. Sclereids of various shapes are seen in leaves and other tissues.
Xerophytes (Adaptations to dry environment)
Morphological adaptations
1. Stem shows stunted growth
2. Certain plants have under ground stem to tide over dry season.
3. Plants like acacia, zizyphus etc. have very hard, woody stem with
thick bark.
4. In many plants the leaves are reduced to scaly or spiny e.g.
Ruscus, Asparagus etc.
5. Many plants have very small and narrow leaf blade to reduce the
transpiration area.
6. Some plants have shining leaf surface to reflect light. E.g. Nerium
odorum.
7. In certain plants, leaves are very thick and leathery to reduce
transpiration. E.g. Calotropis procera
8. Many plants have waxy coating on the upper surface of leaves.
9. Folded type leaves are seen in some of the grasses for protection.
10. In non-succulent plants root system is several times larger than
the aerial portion.
Anatomical adaptations
1. Presence of thick cuticle on the upper surface of leaves.
2. The epidermal cells are thick walled.
3. Multiple epidermal layers are seen on both upper and lower surface
of leaves.
4. Stomata are reduced in numbers and are sunken type.
5. The stomata pits are filled with number of hairs.
6. Thick walled sclerenchyma cells are seen in the hypodermis. E.g.
pinus needle
7. Few spongy parenchyma cells with small inter cellular spaces.
8. Presence of many layered palisade parenchyma
9. The cells are relatively smaller in size and vacuoles are small.
10. Well developed vascular tissues are present.
ANATOMY OF HYDROPHYTES
ANATOMY OF XEROPHYTES
ANATOMY OF DICOT
AND MONOCOT LEAF
Comparison of the Anatomy of Dicot and Monocot Stem
Comparison of the Anatomy of Dicot and Monocot Roots
ANATOMY OF DICOT STEM
ANATOMY OF DICOT STEM
ANATOMY OF MONOCOT STEM
ANATOMY OF MONOCOT STEM