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Introduction
What Is Anthropology.
Importance and the purpose of Life Studies(Anthropology)
Classification of Anthropology
Physical Anthropology
Cultural Anthropology
Linguistic Anthropology
Archeology 2
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Evolution
The Various Eras of Evolution.
Theories of Evolution
Homonidae Evolution Process
Evolution of Human Face
Evolution of the jaw and joints
Evolution of teeth and its attachment apparatus
3
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Concept of Attritional Occlusion
Carabelli Trait
Conclusion:
Future :Where is it all leading us
4
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
5
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Anthropology is the broad scientific study of
humankind’s differences, cultural and biological,
against the background of the nature all humans
share around the world and throughout time.
6
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
hat Is the Importance and the
purpose of Life Studies
(Anthropology)
7
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The fundamental questions addressed by
anthropologists are
10
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Cultural Anthropology
Branch of Anthropology that deals with Culture,,
subsistence and other economic patterns, kinship, sex and
marriage, socialization, social control, political
organization, class, ethnicity, gender, religion, and
cultural changes .
11
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Linguistic Anthropology
13
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
14
Prokaryotes Ocean FISHES
& Species CRABS
Most Primitive
Eukaryotes Rapidly AND
Invertebrates Fishes, AMPHIBIANS
Diversify
& Few Corals,
Vertebrates molluscs 15
Dinosaurs, Humans
Reptiles, Mammals Dinosaurs
giant Insects die out Birds Thrive Many
Marine reptiles
Appear appear thrive Species die
Insects, Mammals, Off.
Dinosaurs,
Reptiles spread, Spiders flourish
Insects thrive.
Trilobites die Primates 16
Birds appear
off appear
17
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20
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24
25
26
27
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29
30
When an organism
31
Darwin and HMS Beagle
In 1835 the British naval ship Beagle reached the Galapagos
Islands off South America's west coast. There, a young
biologist named Charles Darwin collected samples of the
plants and animals and took notes of his observations.
Darwin was awed by the enormous variety of life inhabiting
these islands and concluded that life must be ever changing,
or evolving, to create such diversity. Upon returning to
England, Darwin spent 20 years studying his Galapagos 32
40
.
.
41
.
Theory of Orthogenesis
.
(Development in Straight Line)
Haldane and Julian Huxley say that evolution proceeds
in any particular direction only ,not because of any
advantage gained by the race ,or because of any direct
molding effect of surrounding, but because of some
inner urge ,some necessity for the hereditary
42
constitution to change in just that particular way.
• "The affinities of all the beings of the same
class have sometimes been represented by a
great tree... As buds give rise by growth to
fresh buds, and these if vigorous, branch out
and overtop on all sides many a feebler
branch, so by generation I believe it has been
with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its
dead and broken branches the crust of the
earth, and covers the surface with its ever 43
branching and beautiful ramifications."
44
46
47
48
The first humans survived by scavenging, gathering, and hunting
Early scavengers
and hunters may
have depleted
populations of
some of their
prey and some
competing
carnivores
49
The human branch of the primate tree is only a
few million years old
54
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
One of the regional descendents of H. erectus
was the stocky and muscular Neanderthals
They lived throughout Europe from about
200,000 to 40,000 years ago 55
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Some paleoanthropologists think that modern humans
arose from the regionally diverse populations of
archaic Homo sapiens in Africa, Europe, and Asia.
Others believe that modern Homo sapiens came from
a second group in Africa. This group arose around
100,00 years ago. They migrated out of Africa
They replaced regional populations of archaic
peoples 56
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Major milestones in the evolution of Homo sapiens are
the evolution of an erect stance, a large brain a
prolonged period of parental care. We have not changed
much biologically since modern humans first appeared.
57
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
BUT
Our culture —the accumulated knowledge, customs,
beliefs, arts, and other products—has evolved enormously
There have been three main stages in cultural change
58
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Scavenging-gathering-hunting was the
first major stage of culture
60
The machine age is the third major stage of
culture
200
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
If u have not already guessed it this is the
human face for you
204
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The designs of the toes, foot bones, arch of the foot,
ankle, leg bones, pelvis, and vertebral column all
interrelate in the anatomic composite that provides
upright body stance
205
The head is in a balanced position
on an upright spine. The arms and
hands have become freed. The
manipulation of food and other
objects and defense, offense, and
so forth, utilize primarily the
hands, rather than the shortened
jaws.
206
The enormous enlargement and the resultant
configuration of the brain have caused a "flexure"
(bending) of the human cranial base. This relates to two
key features.
207
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
First, the spinal cord is aligned vertically, a
change that permits upright, bipedal body
stance with free arms and hands.
208
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
209
Second, the orbits have undergone a rotation in conjunction with frontal
lobe expansion. This aligns them so that they point in the forward
direction of upright body movement. The body has become vertical, but
the neutral visual axis is thereby still horizontal, as in other mammals.
(Note: The muzzle of a typical animal points obliquely downward in the
"neutral" position, not straight forward. This positions the orbital axis
approximately parallel with the ground and toward the direction of body
movement.) 210
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
211
The cranial base of the typical mammal is flat, in contrast
to the human cranium, and the spinal cord passes into a
horizontally directed vertebral column.
212
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The head is in a balanced position on an upright spine.
The arms and hands have become freed. The
manipulation of food and other objects and defense,
offense, and so forth, utilize primarily the hands,
rather than the shortened jaws.
213
The large size of the human brain also relates to a rotation of
the orbits toward the midline . This results in a binocular
arrangement of the orbits, a feature that complements finger-
controlled manipulation of food, tools, weapons, and so
forth. The absence of a long, protrusive muzzle does not
block the close-up vision of hand-held objects. The human
mind directs the free hands that can work with three-
dimensional perspective in an upright stance on feet.
214
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Complete orbital rotation into a forward-pointing direction,
however, has also caused a marked reduction in the
interorbital part of the face. This is significant, because the
area involved is the root of the nasal region, and the result of
man's close-set eyes is a narrow & necessarily quite short
nose. The olfactory sense in Homo has become a much less
dominant factor in environmental awareness and is far
exceeded by many other mammalian groups 215
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Reduction in nasal protrusion is accompanied by a more or
less equivalent reduction of the jaw (nasal reduction
apparently paced this evolutionary process). The whole face
has necessarily become reduced in horizontal length as a
result. However, the face has also been rotated into a nearly
vertical alignment in relationship to the massive 216
enlargement of the brain and the flexure of the cranial base.
The whole face has necessarily become
reduced in horizontal length
217
The nasal mucosa is ordinarily an active site involved in
temperature regulation in most mammals. Vasoconstriction
and vasodilation of the vessels in the massive spread of
mucosa covering the turbinates control the amount of heat
retention or loss. Because of marked nasal reduction in man,
however, this function has been largely taken over by the
relatively hairless and sweat gland—loaded integument.
218
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Control of blood flow in the dermis, combined with sweat
gland activity, provides the equivalent for nasal
thermoregulation. This is possible in man (and in a very
few other species, such as the pig) because of a near-naked
skin.
219
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
In thick-furred animals, thermoregulation is carried
out by regulating heat transfers in the nasal mucosa,
panting to release excess heat, limited perspiration in
hairless areas (such as the pads of the paws), and a
Huffing of the fur to increase dead air insulation.
220
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
All mammalian forms have reinforcement "pillars" built
into the architectonic design of the craniofacial complex.
These pillars are parts of bones that provide a buttress for
structural support and biomechanical stress resistance that
balances the physical properties of the skull against the
composite of forces acting within it, including growth
itself, just as the framework of a building provides
generalized support and stability 221
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Although customarily described with reference to tooth
positions, the nature of support goes well beyond just
accommodation to masticatory forces. In the human face,
one of these is the "key ridge," which is a vertical column
of thickened maxillary bone approximately centered above
the functionally important area around the upper first
molar.
222
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Mechanical support then continues from this ridge into
and through the lateral orbital rim on to the
supraorbital-reinforced frontal bone.
The second maxillary molar is reinforced by a vertical
sheet of bone, the posterolateral orbital wall, which
extends directly above this tooth
223
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The human face is exceptionally wide because the brain
and cranial floor are wide. However, the face has been
almost engulfed by the massive brain behind and above
it. Note the wondrously, incredibly colossal size of the
human cranium, in comparison with that of the typical
mammal.
224
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
225
The expanded frontal lobes of the human brain lie above
the eyes and almost the whole remainder of the face,
rather than behind, and a forehead has thus been added.
This also relates to the rotation of the orbits into vertical,
forward-facing positions as well as to the rotation of the
face as a whole into a downward-backward position.
226
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The expansion of the various parts of the cerebral
hemispheres has created sizable pockets in the cranial
floor). Each of these endocranial fossae relates to
specific lobes of the brain on the inside of the cranial
floor and to specific parts of the face, pharynx, and so
forth, on the outside. We can utilize our knowledge of
these brain-cranial floor-facial relationships to
advantage in analyzing the structure of the face and
the basis for its many variations in form and pattern.227
228
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The first documented vertebrates were called
Agnatha. They are minute fish like animals without
jaws. The evolution of vertebrates started with the
expansion of mouth cavity and disappearance of one
or two anterior gill arches. The early jawed
vertebrates were called placodermi.
229
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
230
231
The vertebrate with jaws are divided into five classes:
Fishes ,amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Until
the evolution of mammals, the vertebrate mandible
consisted of several dermal bones which articulate with
the skull at a joint formed by two enchondral bones
derived form the cartilage bars of the first brachial arch.
In mammal only one dermal bone ( the dentary) is
retained as the mandible. 232
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
A variety of evidence supports this concept. The gradual
appearance of such a bony process on the mandible can be
seen in a fossil series of related reptilian skulls. A similar
sequence occurs in the embryonic development of the
temporomandibular joint in man and all other mammals
studied. The articular tissue of this joint originates in a
very different manner from that seen in the usual synovial
joint. 233
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The bony homologues of the jaw joints and related
structures in reptiles and mammals are shown in table
Within the class of mammals , parallel evolution in the
temporomandibular joint , producing marked differences
in form and function as the jaws became specialized .
shearing (lion), grinding (cow), grasping (porpoise),and
biting and chewing (man).
234
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
235
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
236
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
237
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Among the modern vertebrates only the Class Aves
(birds) lack teeth. Two types of conditions prevail
among the tooth bearing vertebrates. The so called
lower vertebrates (bony and cartilaginous fishes,
amphibia is, and reptiles generally are characterized
by polyphyodontia, whereby teeth are continually
being replaced by successors. Mammals, on the other
hand, may be either monophyodont, or diphyodont
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
In the former condition there is but one set of teeth
which has no successors, in the latter there are two sets,
one being the primary or deciduous dentition, the other
the secondary or permanent teeth. Certain insectivora are
monophyodont, but most mammals are diphyodont.
The lower vertebrates are homodont, a condition
typified by teeth which are alike, while mammals are
heterodont in that there are various kinds of teeth in the
same dentition
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
249
250
The morphology of the teeth quite accurately reflects
the functions they subserve within the species. Among
mammals these functions include: piercing. tearing,
trapping, digging, combing, scraping, grinding,
crushing, and shearing: These varying properties may
aid the animal in fighting, obtaining food, and securing
a mate.
251
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Since the teeth are placed in the most anterior part
of the animal, well in front of the brain and the
eyes, they, along with the olfactory organ make the
first contact with the environment and are hence of
primary importance for survival. Few animals can
sustain in the wild state if their teeth were much
less than typical for the species.
252
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Since there is a high correlation between tooth form and
its function, it is possible for the paleontologist in many
cases to describe quite accurately much of the life habits
of a prehistoric animal from a study of the fossil teeth
alone.
253
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Evolution
About 250,000,000 years ago the first, or stem, reptiles
evolvcd. They are called Cotylosaurs and they gave rise
to a group of reptiles, the Synapsids, which dominated
life on earth for perhaps fifty or sixty million years. Two
successive radiations took place among the Synapsids,
one originating from a group known as the Pelycosaurs
and giving rise to a reptilian series called Sphenacodotiia.
254
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The latter, in turn, gave rise to the Therapsids, which
flourished in Permian times and which included among
its various types flesh-eating reptiles known as
Theriodonts.
255
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
250,000,000 years ago the first, or stem, reptiles evolvcd.
They Were called Cotylosaurs
Pelycosaurs
256
gave rise to the Therapsids, which flourished in Permian
times and which included among its various types flesh-
eating reptiles known as Theriodonts
257
EVOLUTION OF HUMAN MOLAR TEETH :
Six main theories have been advanced to explain the
evolution of the complicated multiple-cusped teeth of
mammals, including man, from the simpler teeth of reptiles.
1) Concrescence theory
2) Cingulum theory
3) Kinetogenetic theoiy
4) Tritubercular theory 258
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
5) Multitubercular theory
6) Dimer's theory
259
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Concrescence theory :
Ameghino, Rose and Kekenthal were all with the opinion
mammalian teeth were developed from simpler cones
(Haplodont teeth) and the modern multiple -cusped teeth
are formed by the fusion of 2 or more of these simple
haplodont teeth into a compound tooth.
260
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
261
Cingulum theory :
In this theory- mammalian teeth are derived from haplodont teeth.
"Marrett Tims" considered that basal ridge or cingulum, which
surrounds a tooth at its neck, develops into a fresh cusp or cusps-
which explains to a great extent the evolution of complex tooth form.
"Osborn" says that, by the elevation of cingulum ino prominence and
its disappearance in others - regarded as the mother of cusps.
"Mummery" states that it would certainly appear that accessory
cusps arises from the cingulum.. 262
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
263
Kinetogenetic theory :
Ryder, who upholds this theory, again regards the
earliest mammalian teeth as haplodont in origin.
He mentioned that the movements of TMJ. govern the
form of the tooth. The simple cones become flattened by
mutual pressure, and the ridge and hollows are produced
by the movements of the lower jaw in mastication.
264
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
There is definite relationship between the form and
movement of the condyle and the forms of teeth.
Many authorities admit, this connection between tooth
form and movement of condyle but consider that Ryder's
view of it is the exact reverse of the true sequellae .
They mention and that the shade and movement of the
joint are modified and formed by the diet and by the
shape of the teeth. 265
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
S. Glasstone removed the tooth germs from the embryos
of rats and rabbits and grew them in vitro. As there is no
TMJ movement here to effect the forms of teeth.
Therefore, the factors responsible for the morphology of
the tooth are intrinsic to the tooth germ and Glasstone
found that rats and rabbits tended to develop extra cusps
when grown in vitro.
266
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
267
Tritubercular theory or Cope - Osborn
Theory
This theory, 1st advanced by Cope and later elaborated by
Osborn, sometimes called the "Cope-Osborn theory". He
considered that multicuspid mammalian teeth are
developed from a simple haplodont or reptilian form of
tooth by the addition of extra cusps.triconodont teeth.
268
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
In this theory - original haplodont cone is known as the
PROTOCONE when this original cone has two small
accessory cones on .its mesial and distal surface and it is
known as PROTODONT TOOTH.
These small accessory cones develop in size until the
tooth appears to consists of 3 cones in a straight line and
this is known as TRICONODONT TEETH. 269
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
The anterior cusp - paracone - upper teeth
- paraconid - lower teeth
The large middle cusp - protocone - upper teeth
- protoconoid - lower teeth
The posterior cusp - metacone - upper teeth
- metaconid - lower teeth
270
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
271
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Owing to shortening of jaws, these triconodont teeth are said
to be compressed anteroposteriorly until the cusps form a
triangle instead of straight line.
272
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
In upper teeth
Protocone is squeezed to the lingual side to form the
large anterior lingual cusps while the paracone and
the metacone are squeezed to buccal side.
In lower teeth
Protoconid is forced to the buccal side to form
anterior buccal cusp and paraconid and metaconid
are forced to lingual side,
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
In certain teeth, owing to the diet, some cusps of the
TRIGON are lost and replaced by cusps from the
additional part known as the TALON. Which it crushing
or masticating element of the tooth and developed from
the enlargement of cingulum.
In human upper molar, which has 4 cusps, all 3 cusps is of
trigon and cingulum has developed into a 4th cusp.
(Hypocone) behind protocone
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
In lower molar, which has 5 cusps, the paraconid is
lost and the metaconid slips forward to take paraconid
position.
Only 2 cusps of trigon remain - protoconid and
metaconid and additional 3 cusps, hypoconoid,
entaconid and hypoconolid belong to the talon.
Hypothesis of triconodonty
The hypothesis of dimery
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Hypothesis of concentration
Hypothesis of equivalence
Hypothesis of triconodonty –
317
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Example-ANGLER
This fish has 2 rows of teeth an outer ankylosed and inner
hinged row.
- A hinged tooth is supplied posteriorly by fibrous elastic
ligament, while its anterior free edge rests upon a buttress
of bone.
- The teeth bent towards the throat, the hinge compresses
and teeth return to their original positions upon the force
being removed. 318
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Anchylosis attachment :
- When a tooth is fixed to the jaw by calcified tissue it
is said to be anchyiosed.
- There is no intervention of fibrous or uncalcified
tissue.
Eel fish : The teeth of the Eel rest upon little cylinder or
cups of bone of attachment and is described as "
Acrodont anchylosis".
-Little fibrous "annular ligament" surrounds the base of
tooth and allows a slight movement. 319
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
320
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Gomphosis (attachment in sockets)
- Seen in man, mammalia, reptiles and in some fish
eg : saw fish, pristis.
- In man, mammals and crocodile, a membrane
(alveolar dental membrane) exists between the tooth
and the socket of bone in which the tooth is situated.
To these persisting sockets the term " thecodont" has
applied. 321
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Brash has shown that in case of pig when the teeth
are lost, the alveolar processes becomes
transformed into basal portion of the jaw and that
new sockets form for the successional teeth.
322
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Gomphosis (attachment in sockets)
- Seen in man, mammalia, reptiles and in some fish eg : saw fish,
pristis.
- In man, mammals and crocodile, a membrane (alveolar dental
membrane) exists between the tooth and the socket of bone in
which the tooth is situated. To these persisting sockets the term "
Thecodont" has applied.
Brash has shown that in case of pig when the teeth are lost, the
alveolar processes becomes transformed into basal portion of the
jaw and that new sockets form for the successional teeth.. 323
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
324
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Anthropology as a science has provided us with an insight into
our past .The most important lessons that this science teaches us
is that Evolution is an ever progressive process . Today we
humans consider ourselves to be a privy to mother nature’s
secrets of life ,the evidence can be seen with the aggressive
cloning ,customised D.N.A. planned offsprings, non
discriminate use of natural resourses and creation of an utter
chaos in the ecological balance of the planet by our species.
325
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
326
Are we really challenging nature or are we fitting into its bigger plan for
327
Thank you
328
Varun Malhotra, Department of orthodontics , Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
References
The anthropology of modern human teeth – G.
Richard Scott. & Turner
Science and practice of occlusion – Charles
McNeill
Origins of life on earth – Gray’s Anatomy – pg 7.
Orthodontics : Practice & Technique – J.A.
Salzmann
Contemporary Orthodontics – William R. Proffit.
Plan of Face – Enlow – Ch. 5
Illustrated encyclopeadia on evolution of life –
Time Life
Attritional Occlusion – Begg & Kesling
Development of Function & Evolution of teeth –
Mark F. Teaford & Smith
The morphogenesis of the TMJ – Moffit 1966
329
Stone age man’s occlusion – Am J Orth 1959; 40; 298
Dental variation among populations – D.C.N.A genetics –
1975
Evolution of dental occlusion form fish to man – W.K.
Gregory – Angle Orthodontics – Vol 11 No. 3
The Anatomic Museum – Marshal D.G. – AJO – 1992
Anthropology – World Book
330