Chapter 1

Themes in the Study

of Biology
Introduction to BIOLOGY
Biology
It is a natural science concerned with the study of life
and living organisms, including their structure, function,
growth, evolution, distribution, identification and
taxonomy.
History of Biology
If we are going to trace the real person
behind the field of BIOLOGY, we are going
to find no one since there is no written proof
that this field of science was founded by a
certain someone. However, we can
consider that this field emerges into light as
man has developed his rational thinking.
 SOME IMPORTANT NAMES IN THE
FIELD OF BIOLOGY
Aristotle :- Father of Biology
Father of Zoology

Father of Embryology

Theophrastus :- Father of Botany

Louis Pasteur :- Father of Microbiology

 G.J.Mendel :- Father of Genetics

 Alexander Fleming :- Father of Anti-biotics

Carolus Linnaeus :-Father of Taxonomy

 Bichat :- Father of Histology

 A.V. Leeuwenhoek :- Father of Microscopy

William Harvey :- Father of Blood Circulation

Karl Landsteiner :- Father of Blood Groups

 Charles Darwin :- Father of Evolution

 Hippocrates :- Father of Medicine

 Robert Hooke :- Father of Cytology

 Charak :- Father of Ayurveda

 Ivan Pavlov :- Father of Conditional Reflex

 Einthoven :- Father of ECG(Electro Cardiogram)

Edward Jenner :- Father of Immunology

 Thomas Addison :- Father of Endocrinology

 Micheli :- Father of Mycology

 Stanley:- Father of Virology

 Susruta :- Father of Surgery

 Norman Borlaug :- Father of Green Revolution

 Alec Jefferys:- Father of DNA fingerprinting

Scientific Method
• It is a set of logical procedure or guidelines used to test specific
proposition. This method involves a series of steps in collecting and
organizing information in an orderly and careful investigation.
Steps in Scientific Method
• Observation
• Formulating a Problem
• Gathering Information
• Hypothesis formation
• Experimentation
• Data gathering
• Data Analysis, Interpretation and Conclusion
• Scientific Verification
• Publication and Application
Scientific Method

• This simplified flow Observations

diagram of the
scientific method
shows the
important Hypothesis
components
involved in a
scientific study.
Conclusion
Experiment/
Observations

Scientific
Theory
Scientific Method
• First is the observation phase, where new
observations are made.
◦ This is also the time where previous data are examined.
• Next, a hypothesis is formulated to attempt to explain
the available data and observations.
◦ A hypothesis must be testable!!!
Principles of Science
• Hypothesis:
• Potential answers to questions being asked.
• Derived from prior observations of nature or from theories
based on such observations.
• Often constitute general statements about nature that may
explain a large number of diverse observations.
• If a hypothesis is very powerful in explaining a wide variety of
related phenomena, it attains the level of a theory.
Scientific Method
• The hypothesis is then tested through a series of
experiments and/or observations.
◦ These experiments and observations must be repeatable!
◦ The factual information resulting from these experiments and
observations are called data.
◦ An important part of an experiment is the control, which is a
replicate set up exactly like the experiment, except it does not
have the factor being tested.
Scientific Method
• Scientists can then draw a conclusion based on the
data.
◦ The conclusion may involve accepting or rejecting the initial
hypothesis.
◦ Further experiments may require an adjustment to the
conclusions.
• Hypotheses are said to be supported, but not proven.
Scientific Method
• New hypotheses are generated from the conclusions,
and the process starts again.
• A theory results when a group of related hypotheses
are supported by many experiments and observations.
◦ Theories are the ideas that scientists are MOST SURE OF!
• Theory of gravity
• Theory of natural selection
 Some Definitions
 Paradigm - A
widely accepted
theory or group
of interrelated
theories which
guide many
research
efforts.
 Some Definitions
 Scientific Revolutions – The overthrow of a
long held paradigm and rearrangement
and formulations of scientific ideas and
directions.
 Continental Drift in the late 1950’s
Proximate versus Ultimate Causes
Proximate cause – Immediate cause of an event or
function. The mechanisms and the “how” and “what”
questions.

Ultimate cause: Long term reasons for a phenomena.

“Why” questions. In Biology these are often
evolutionary questions.
 Proximate versus Ultimate Causes

 Example: Why do we have a fever?

 Proximate cause – Rapid increase in
metabolism and dilation of blood vessels
initiated by invasion of foreign microbes.
 Ultimate cause: Fevers are adaptive
physiologic mechanisms with beneficial
effects which have evolved to combat
infections.
Scientific Method
• The previous model is
very simplified and the
result is too linear.
• The ‘activity
model’ for the
process of scientific
inquiry shows the more
complex interactions
that are really involved.

Harwood, W. S. 2004. A new Model for Inquiry: is the Scientific Method Dead?
Journal of College Science Teaching. 33(7): 29-33.
Example Experiment
• Observation: Light moths more common in clean areas, dark moths
more common in polluted areas.
• Prediction 1: Moths better able to survive if they match their
background.
◦ Supported by experimental studies with predatory birds.

• Prediction 2: If polluted areas are cleaned, light moths should

become more common (as lichen grows on trees).
 Biology

Zoology Botany Microbiology

Zoology
Animal taxonomy ,Animal morphology, Animal
physiology, Animal anatomy, etc.

Botany
Plant taxonomy, Plant morphology, Plant
physiology, Plant anatomy, etc.

Microbiology
Microbial taxonomy, Microbial morphology,
Microbial Physiology, etc.
Subfields of Biology
• Morphology - is the branch of biology that deals with
the structure of plants and animals, and with
relationships between their structures. The term is also
used to refer to the physical appearance, i.e. size,
shape, color, texture, and location of something

• Anatomy- is the branch of biology concerned with the

study of the structure of organisms and their parts.
• Histology - the study of tissues

• Cytology - the study of cell

• Embryology - deals with the formation, early growth,

and development of living organisms. The embryonic
structure or development of an organism.
• Ontogeny - the developmental events that occur during
the existence of a living organism.

• Genetics – study of heredity and variation

Heredity- the genetic information passing for traits from
parents to their offspring, either through asexual reproduction
or sexual reproduction
Variation- any difference between cells, individual organisms,
or groups of organisms of any species caused either by
genetic differences (genotypic variation) or by the effect of
environmental factors on the expression of the genetic
potentials (phenotypic variation).
• Physiology - is the scientific study of the normal
function in living systems

• Nutrition - the process of nourishing or being

nourished, especially the process by which a living
organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and
for replacement of tissues
• Biochemistry - is the study of the chemical substances
and vital processes occurring in living organisms

• Paleontology - the science of the forms of life existing

in former geologic periods, as represented by their
fossils
• Phylogeny - the evolutionary history of a kind of
organism, the evolution of a genetically related group
of organisms as distinguished from the development of
the individual organism

• Biogeography - the study of the distribution of species

and ecosystems in geographic space and through
(geological) time.
• Ecology - the branch of biology dealing with the
relations and interactions between organisms and their
environment, including other organisms

• Taxonomy - the science dealing with the description,

identification, naming, and classification of organisms.
• Systematics - the study of the diversification of living
forms, both past and present, and the relationships
among living things through time.

• Evolution - the process by which different kinds of living

organisms are thought to have developed and
diversified from earlier forms during the history of the
earth.
• Organic Evolution
Are the events involved in the evolutionary
development of a species. It means that all life
descended from other life, although features may have
changed dramatically along the way.
Organic evolution involves modifications to existing
species, not the development of new ones.
• Natural Selection
The process whereby organisms better adapted to
their environment tend to survive and produce more
offspring. The theory of its action was first fully
expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be
the main process that brings about evolution.
Specific Fields of Biology
• Protozoology
study of protozoans
• Entomology
study of insects
• Conchology
study of shells
• Malacology
study of soft-bodied organism
• Ichthyology
study of fishes
• Helminthology
study of worms
• Herpetology
study of reptiles and amphibians
• Ornithology
• study of birds
• Mammalogy
study of mammals
• Bacteriology
study of bacteria
• Mycology
study of fungi
• Pteridology
study of fern
• Bryology
study of mosses or liverworts
• Phycology
study of algae
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY :-

Morphology :- Study of external structures of living organisms.

Anatomy :- Study of structure of internal organs.

Physiology :- Study of working mechanism of different parts of the body.

Cytology :- Study of structures & functions of the cell.

Histology :- Study of tissues.

Genetics :- Study of transmission of characters from one generation to the

next generation.

Ecology :- Study of inter-relationship between living organisms & its

environment.

Taxonomy :- Study of identification, classification & nomenclature of living

organisms

Contd.
Embryology :- Study of development of embryos.

Palaeontology :- Study of fossils.

Ethology :- Study of animal behaviours.

Endocrinology :- Study of structure & function of Endocrine System.

Gerentology :- Study of ageing.

Arthrology :- Study of joints.

Osteology :- Study of bones.

Chondrology :- Study of cartilages.

Myology /Sarcology :- Study of muscles.

Opthalmology :- Study of eyes.

Cardiology :- Study of functions & diseases of heart.

Contd.
Angiology :- Study of blood vessels & lymph vessels.

Rhinology :- Study of nose.

Tricology :- Study of hairs.

Odontology :- Study of teeth.

Oncology :- Study of cancer.

Haematology :- Study of blood.

Dermatology :- Study of skin.

Kalology :- Study of human beauty.

Craniology :- Study of skull.

Contd.
Icthyology :- Study of fishes.

Ornithology :- Study of birds.

Mammology :- Study of mammals.

Herpetology :- Study of reptiles.

Ophiology :- Study of snakes.

Saurology :- Study of lizards.

Entomology :- Study of insects.

Helminthology :- Study of worms.

Karyology :- Study of cell nucleus. Contd.

Malacology :- Study of molluscs.

Conchology :- Study of molluscan shells.

Cryobiology :- Study of effects of low temperature

on living organisms.

Parasitology :- Study of parasites.

Parazoology :- Study of sponges.

Protozoology :- Study of protozoa.

Contd.
Enzymology :- Study of enzymes.

Serology :- Study of blood serum.

Gynaecology :- Study of female reproductive system.

Andrology :- Study of male reproductive sytem.

Otology :- Study of ears.

Sonology :- Study of hearing.

Melanology :- Study of skin pigments.

Hypnology :- Study of sleep.

Splanchnology :- Study of Visceral organs.

Immunology :- Study of body defence &resistance to infections.

Activity: Guess what Specific Study of
Biology does the Picture depicts
Concepts about Life
LIFE
A distinctive characteristic of a living organism from dead
organism or non-living thing, as specifically distinguished
by the capacity to grow, metabolize, respond (to stimuli),
adapt, and reproduce.
 Levels of Organization
of Living Organism
Atoms - the smallest and most
fundamental unit of matter

Molecules- chemical structures

consisting of at least two atoms held
together by one or more chemical bonds.

Organelles - are small structures that

exist within cells

Cell – the smallest functional unit of life

 Levels of Organization
of Living Organism
Tissues - groups of similar cells carrying
out similar or related functions

Organs - are collections of tissues

grouped together performing a common
function.

Organ system - is a higher level of

organization that consists of functionally
related organs
 Levels of Organization
of Living Organism
Organisms - are individual living entities

Population - all the individuals of a

species living within a specific area

Community - is the sum of populations

inhabiting a particular area

Ecosystem consists of all the living things

in a particular area together with the
abiotic, non-living parts of that
environment
 Levels of Organization
of Living Organism
Biosphere - is the collection of all
ecosystems, and it represents the zones
of life on earth. It includes land, water,
and even the atmosphere to a certain
extent.
Characteristics of Life
• Organization- an arrangement of distinct but mutually
dependent parts

• Energy Utilization- the sum of all the chemical and

physical changes occurring in the body of an individual
 Anabolism- the synthesis of complex molecules in living
organisms from simpler ones together with the storage
of energy; constructive metabolism.
Catabolism- the breakdown of complex molecules in
living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the
release of energy; destructive metabolism.

• Growth - defined as the irreversible increase in the

dry mass of an organism. It is brought about by an
increase in cell size or number.
• Reproduction- the biological process by which new
individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their
"parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all
known life; each individual organism exists as the result of
reproduction

• Development- a process wherein a particular organism

transforms itself from a lone cell into a more complicated
multicellular organism
• Response to Environment – reacts or monitors to
changes in the body
Theability of an organism to respond to the stimulus
Homeostasis- maintains stable internal condition

• Adaptation- process by which an animal or plant

species becomes fitted to its environment
• Evolution – continuing process of change from one stat
or condition through time

• Movement – change in position of location

• Differentiation - normal process by which a less

specialized cell develops or matures to become more
distinct in form and function
• Coordination- harmonious function of interrelated
structures

• Regulation- Control of the rate of process

• Digestion- sequence by which food is broken down and

chemically converted so that it can be absorbed by the
cells of an organism and used to maintain vital bodily
functions
• Excretion- process of eliminating waste product
Urine
Sweat
 Feces
Earwax
Tears
Carbon dioxide
Difference between living things and
non-living things
Process Living Non – Living
Metabolic Nutrient uptake and processing Absent
Waste elimination
Generative Growth and Reproduction Absent
Responsiveness Irritability Absent
Survival Instinct (Adaptation and
Evolution
Control Coordination and Regulation Absent
 Difference between Animals and Plants
Characteristic Plants Animals
Mode of Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Nourishment
Extent of Growth Indeterminate Determinate
Cell Wall Present (Cellulose) Absent
Nervous System Absent Present
Mobility Mostly immobile (sessile) Mobile
Primary Food Starch Glycogen
Reserve
Waste Products Oxygen, Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide and
Nitrogenous waste
Theories on the Origin of Life

• Divine or Special Creation Theory – “God created life”

• Abiogenesis or Spontaneous generation theory – “ Life
generates from non-living things”
• Cosmozoic or Interplanetary Theory (Panspermia) “
Life originate from outer planets”
• Philosophical Theory of Eternity – “Life has no
beginning and no end” reincarnation
• Marine Theory – Life originated from the water (sea)
• Naturalistic or Evolutionary or Physico-chemical Theory
– “Life originated from result of chain of chemical
reactions.
Theory of Evolution
An Overview of Charles Darwin’s
Theory of Evolution
Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all
life is related and has descended from a common ancestor: the
birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related.
Complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors
naturally over time.
In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an
organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved
because they aid survival -- a process known as "natural
selection."
 These beneficial mutations are passed on to the
next generation. Over time, beneficial mutations
accumulate and the result is an entirely different
organism (not just a variation of the original, but an
entirely different creature).
Natural Selection
Natural selection acts to preserve and accumulate
minor advantageous genetic mutations.
Natural selection is the preservation of a
functional advantage that enables a species to compete
better in the wild.
Promotes survival of the Fittest
Descent with Modification
It is simply passing traits from parent to offspring, and
this concept is one of the fundamental ideas behind
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.
Summary
Darwin's Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

• More individuals are produced each generation that can survive.

• Phenotypic variation exists among individuals and the variation
is heritable.
• Those individuals with heritable traits better suited to the
environment will survive.
• When reproductive isolation occurs new species will form.