BRIDGE

FOUNDATIONS
VINEET GUPTA
SENIOR PROF BRIDGE - I
TYPE OF FOUNDATIONS
• SHALLOW
– SINGLE FOOTING
– COMBINED FOOTING
– RAFT
– STRIP
• DEEP
– PILE
– WELL
 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
• SAFETY AGAINST STRENGTH FAILURE
• SAFETY AGAINST DEFORMATIONS
• SAFETY AGAINST DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
• ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE
– LESSER OF
• NETT UBC / FOS
• ALLOWABLE PRESSURE wrt PERMISSIBLE SETTLEMENT
 SHALLOW / OPEN FOUNDATIONS
• NOT RESTING ON COMPRESSIBLE SOIL
• DEPTH OF FOUNDATION IN
– SOIL – 1.75 m BELOW ANTICIPATED SCOUR LINE
• KEY IN
– HARD ROCK – 0.30 m
– SOFT ROCK – 1.5 m
• RESULTANT OF ALL THE FORCES AT THE BASE-
– WITHIN ⅓rd FOR – FOR SOILS
– WITHIN ½ FOR - ROCK
 SUB SOIL INVESTIGATION
• TO DETERMINE
– NATURE, EXTENT AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL/
ROCK STRATUM
– DEPTH OF GROUND WATER TABLE
• RECONNAISANCE SURVEY –
– DATA FROM GEOLOGICAL & TOPO MAPS
– SOIL SURVEY
• PRILIMINARY SURVEY – DEPTH , THICKNESS,
COMPOSITION OF SOIL, LOCATION OF ROCK & GROUND
WATER
• FINAL LOCATION SURVEY - COLLECTION OF SAMPLES,
TESTING FOR SOIL/ROCK PARAMETERS
 METHODS
• OPEN FOUNDATIONS
– TRIAL PIT METHOD-
• VISUAL,
• SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION TESTS
• DEEP FOUNDATIONS
– BORE HOLES –SAMPLES AT EVERY 1.5m
– INSITU FIELD TESTS – FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS
 METHODS
• NON COHESIVE SOILS
– BEARING CAPACITY
• PLATE LOAD TEST
• DYNAMIC CONE PENERTATION TEST
• STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
– SETTLEMENT
• PLATE LOAD TEST
• SPT
• COHESIVE SOILS
– BEARING CAPACITY – SAME AS NON-COHESIVE SOILS
– SETTLEMENT- TAKES PLACE OVER A LONG PERIOD
– TOTAL SETTLEMENT
• P = Pi + Poed + Ps
 SETTLEMENT
• P = Pi +Poed + Ps

Pi = IMMEDIATE OR ELASTIC SETTLEMENT

Poed = PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT –
REDUCTION IN VOLUME DUE TO SQEEZING OUT OF
WATER
Ps= SECONDARY SETTLEMENT- REDUCTION IN
VOLUME DUE TO ADJUSTMENT OF INTERNAL
STRUCTURE
 SETTLEMENT
• TIME RATE OF SETTLEMENT- BASED ON
TERZAGHI’s ONE DIMENTIONAL
CONSOLIDATION THEORY
• ACTUAL CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT FASTER
– THREE DIMENTIONAL CONSOLIDATION
– RELEASE OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE OUTSIDE
FOOTING AREA
– HORIZONTAL PERMEABILITIES ARE MUCH HIGHER
THAN VERTICAL ( 3 TO 5 TIMES)
 FOUNDATION ON ROCKS
• NATURE OF ROCK FORMATION, DIP, STRIKE, FAULTS &
FISSURES
• UBC – BY SHEAR STRENGTH – BY UNCONFINED
COMPRESSION TEST
• SAMPLE 5 cm DIA X 10 cm LENGTH
• UBC = 4.5 X UCS
• FOS –
– 3 FOR ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE – HOMOGENEOUS ROCK
– 6 – 8 FOR UNSOUND ROCK
 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
IN ERODABLE STRATA – MADE UP OF -

1) NORMAL SCOUR IN THE RIVER

1) LOCAL SCOUR AROUND THE PIER

1) GRIP BELOW THE MAX SCOUR LINE

 NORMAL SCOUR
LACEY’s FORMULA- D = 0.473 (Qf/f)1/3
IF
(a)Design flood continues for sufficient time
(b)River is flowing straight through incoherent
alluvium and are free to adjust their width
of flow and their depth
(c) The width of the river is not less than the
Lacey’s regime width i.e. L= 4.85 Qf.
• f is the silt factor = 1.76m
• Where the width is less than Lacey’s
regime width
dc/d = (w/wc)0.61
 LOCAL SCOUR
• Bridges are generally located on straight reaches and
even where the river is on curve suitable guide bunds
are provided to ensure straight flow
• Bridge piers cause obstruction to the normal flow of the
river. This causes additional local scour
– The scour depends on the shape of the piers, its
width, the direction of flow, the silt factor, the
velocity and depth of flow etc.
– No rational formula has been evolved so far
– The normal practice on the Indian Railways is to
double the scour depth calculated by the Lacey’s
formula to arrive at the maximum scour depth below
H.F.L.
 LOCAL SCOUR
• The depth calculated shall be increased as under-

Nature of the river Depth

of scour
- In a straight reach 1.25D
- At the moderate bend conditions e.g. along 1.5D
apron of guide bund
- At a severe bend 1.75D
- At a right angle bend or at nose of piers 2.0 D
- In severe swirls e.g. against mole head of a 2.5 to
guide bund 2.75D
 LOCAL SCOUR
• Lacey equations are valid for rivers which are in
regime and flow in completely incoherent
material

– There conditions are satisfied in Indo-Gangetic

plains and southern rivers flowing towards east
coast

– These conditions are not satisfies elsewhere

– Scour depth should be ascertained in other cases as

per spring method given in RDSO technical paper
no. 153 “River training and control on guide bund
system”
 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
• ADEQUATE GRIP- BELOW DEEPEST ANTICIPATED
SCOUR
• DEPTH OF FOUNDATION BELOW WATER LEVEL
FOR Qf –
• NOT LESS THAN 1.33 X MAX DEPTH OF SCOUR
• SHALL NOT REST ON SLOPING ROCK STRATA
• DYNAMIC AUGMENT NEED NOT BE
CONSIDERED
 COFFER DAM
• WATER TIGHT STRUCTURE TO FACILITATE
EXCAVATION/ PILING UNDER FLOWING OR
STAGNANT WATER
• CONSTRUCTED USING – STEEL SHEET PILES,
RCC, TIMBER ETC
• FOR DEPTH OF WATER > 10 m – DOUBLE WALL
COFFER DAM
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• BROAD CALSSIFICATION
– DRIVEN (DISPLACEMENT PILES)
– BORED (REPLACEMENT PILE)
• ON THE BASIS OF MATERIAL
– TIMBER
– STEEL
– PCC
– RCC
– PSC
– COMPOSITE
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
– DRIVEN PRECAST PILES
– DRIVEN CAST IN SITU PILES
– BORED PRECAST PILES
– BORED CAST IN SITU PILES
• MODE OF LOAD TRANSMISSION
– END BEARING PILES
– FRICTION PILES
– FRICTION CUM END BEARING PILES
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• SECTIONAL AREA
– CIRCULAR
– SQUARE
– TUBULAR
– OCTAGONAL
– H-SECTION
• SIZE
– MICRO (MINI) PILES (<150 mm)
– SMALL DIAMETER PILE (>150 mm < 600 mm)
– LARGE DIAMETER PILE (>600 mm)
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

• INCLINATION

– VERTICAL PILES

– RAKER (BATTER PILES)

CONSTRUCTION OF PILE FOUNDATION
• DRIVEN PRECAST PILES
– DROP HAMMER
– SINGLE/ DOUBLE ACTING HAMMER
– DIESEL HAMMER
– VIBRATORY HAMMER
• DRIVEN CAST IN SITU PILES
– STEEL CASING PIPE WITH SHOE AT BOTTOM DRIVEN TO REQD DEPTH
– CASTING AFTER PLACING REINFORCEMENT CAGE
• BORED CAST IN SITU PILES
– GUIDE CASING OF 3-4 m AT TOP OF BORE HOLE
– BAILER – CHIESEL
– BENTONITE SLURRY FOR STABILISATION
– FLUSHING
– CONCRETING AFTER PLACING REIN. CAGE
– TREMIE METHOD OF CONCRETING
– CONCRETE GRADE M 20 OR HIGHER
– HIGH SLUMP CONCRETE
END BEARING PILE
FRICTION PILES
DRIVEN PILING
BORED PILING
 DRIVEN CAST IN SITU
• Driving a permanent
or temporary casing
and filling at with
plain or reinforced
concrete
DRIVING OF PILE
INSTALLATION OF BORED CAST IN
SITU PILES

• BAILER AND CHISEL METHOD

• AUGUR BORING
• BORING USING OSCILLATORS
• VIBRATORY DRILLING RIGS
BAILER AND CHISEL METHOD
AUGAR
BORING
UNDER REAMING RIG
 BORED CAST IN SITU PILES
• Stabilization of bore
–Drilling Mud Circulation
(Bentonite Slurry)
Bentonite is impure clay
consisting of Montmorillonite.
Na cation responsible for
support
MUD CIRCULATION
 TREMIE CONCRETING
• CONCRETE TO BE RICH IN CEMENT (MIN 370 KG/ M3), SLUMP
– 150 -180 mm
• 10% EXTRA CEMENT FOR UNDER WATER CONCRETING
• CASING- TEMP/PERMANENT
• SLIDING PLUG/STEEL PLATE FUSHED AHEAD OF FIRST CHARGE
– TO PREVENT MIXING OF WATER
• HOPPER AND TREMIE SHOULD BE CLOSED SYSTEM
• DIA OF TREMIE PIPE – 200mm FOR 20mm AGGREGARE
• CONCRETING TO BE UNINTERRUPTED
• TOP OF CONCRETE IN PILE – ABOVE CUTOFF LEVEL
• MIN EMBEDMENT IN PILE CAP – 50 mm
TREMIE CONCRETING
TREMIE CONCRETING
 SELECTION OF TYPE OF PILES

• AVAILABILITY OF SPACE AND HEAD ROOM

• PROXIMITY TO STRUCTURES
• RELIABILITY – DRIVEN PRECAST BETTER
• LIMITATION OF LENGTH- DRIVEN PILES – 25 –
30 m
 SOCKETTING IN ROCK
• FOR THE END BEARING PILES
– SOUND RELATIVELY HOMOGENOUS ROCK
INCLUDING GRANITE AND GNEISS -- 1 TO
2D
– MODERATELY WEATHERED CLOSELY FORMED
INCLUDING SCHIST & SLATE ---- 2 TO 3D
– SOFT ROCK --- 3 TO 4D
 SEQUENCING OF PILING
• NORMALLY FROM CENTRE TO PERIPHERY OR FROM ONE
SIDE TO OTHER
• POSSIBILITY OF HARM TO ADJACENT PILES BE
CONSIDERED. MORE DAMAGE IN COMPACT SOILS
• ORDER OF INSTALLATION SHOULD AVOID CREATING A
COMPACTED BLOCK OF GROUND
• IN STIFF CLAY OR COMPACTED SAND LAYERS – FROM
CENTER TO OUTWARD OR FROM ONE EDGE TO ACROSS
THE GROUP
• IN VERY SOFT SOILS – FROM OUTSIDE TO INSIDE
 SPECING OF PILES
• DETERMINED BASED ON THE
– TYPE OF SOIL
– EMPERICAL APPROACH
• PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF INSTALLING A PILE
• NATURE OF LOAD TRANSFER
• POSSIBLE REDUCTION IN BEARING CAPACITY OF
A GROUP OF PILES
 SPECING OF PILES
• FOR END BEARING PILES
– GOVERNED BY COMPETENCY OF BEARING STRATA
– NOT LESS THAN 2.5 D
• FOR FRICTION PILES
– SUFFICINTLY APART TO AVOID OVERLAPPING ZONES
– NOT LESS THAN 3 D
• CLOSURE SPACING POSSIBLE IN LOOSE SAND OR FILLINGS
FOR DRIVEN PILES ONLY
• MAX SPACING 4 D
 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILE
• IN CONTEXT OF FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

• LOAD THAT A PILE CAN CARRY WITHOUT

UNDERGOING CONTINUOUS SETTLEMENT FOR
INSIGNIFICANT LOAD INCRIMENTS – BY VIRTUE
OF ITS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
• FAILURE OF SURROUNDING SOIL OCCURS
BEFORE FAILURE OF PILE MATERIAL
FACTORS INFLUENCING PILE CAPACITY
• SURROUNDING SOIL
• INSTALLATION TECHNIQUE
• SPACING OF PILES
• SYMMETRY OF THE GROUP
• LOCATION OF PILE CAP
• SHAPE OF PILE CAP
• LOCATION OF PILE IN A GROUP
• DRAINAGE CONDITIONS IN SOIL
LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF SINGLE
PILE
• DYNAMIC PILE FORMULA – BY USING THE DATA
OBTAINED DURING PILING ( CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY)
• STATIC FORMULA – USING SOIL TEST RESULTS
– HILEY’s FORMULA
• MORE RELIABLE FOR NON-COHESIVE SOILS
• NOT RELIABLE FOR COHESIVE SOILS
• LOAD TEST – AFTER 4 WEEKS OF CASTING OF PILE
• RESISTENCE DUE TO SKIN FRICTION AVAILABLE ONLY
BELOW SCOUR LINE
• DRAG DOWN FORCE
 FACTOR OF SAFETY

• THE MINIMUM FOS – 3 FOR STATIC

FORMULA

• MINIMUM FOS – 2 FOR LOAD TEST

 BEARING CAPACITY OF A PILE GROUP
• MAY BE
– EQUAL TO THE BC OF SINGLE PILE X NO. OF PILES
– LESS THAN THE ABOVE
• FRICTION PILES, CAST OR DRIVEN INTO
PROGRESSIVELY STIFFER MATERIALS & END
BEARING PILES – EQUAL
• FRICTION PILES INSTALLED IN SOFT AND CLAYEY
SOILS – LESS
• DRIVEN PILES IN LOOSE SANDY SOILS – MORE DUE
TO EFFECT OF COMPACTION
 BEARING CAPACITY OF A PILE GROUP
STRATA TYPE OF PILE BC PF PILE GROUP
1. DENSE SAND NOT DRIVEN NO. OF PILES X SPC
UNDERLAIN BY WEAK
DEPOSITS
2. LOOSE SANDY SOILS ½ (NO. OF PILES X SPC)

3. SAND NOT BORED ⅔ (NO. OF PILES X SPC)

UNDERLAIN BY WEAK
DEPOSITS
SPC – SINGLE PILE CAPACITY

FOR PILES DRIVEN INTO SOFT OR MEDIUM CLAYS WITH 3

TO 4 D SPACING – ULTIMATE GROUP CAPACITY = ⅔ OF
THE SUM OF SINGLE PILE CAPACITY
 PERMISIBLE TOLERANCE FOR PILES
• ALIGNMENT CONTROL
– VERTICAL PILES – DEVIATION OF 1.5%
– RAKER PILES – DEVIATION OF 4%
• SHIFT
– FOR PILES LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 600 MM DIA
• NOT MORE THAN 75 MM OR D/4 WHICHEVER IS LESS
– FOR MORE THAN 600 MM. DIA. PILES
• 75 MM OR D/10 WHICHEVER IS MORE
• EXCESS DEVIATION BEYOND DESIGN LIMITS –PILE TO BE
REPLACED OR SUPPLEMENTED BY ADDITIONAL PILES
 OVERLOADING OF PILES
• 10% OF THE PILE CAPACITY MAY BE ALLOWED
ON EACH PILE
• MAX OVERLOADING ON A GROUP SHALL BE
RESTRICTED TO 40% OF THE ALLOWABLE LOAD
ON A SINGLE PILE
• SHALL NOT BE ALLOWED AT INITIAL DESIGN
STAGE
 LOAD TEST
• STRESS TEST
– MAINTAINED LOAD TEST
– CONSTANT RATE OF PENETRATION TEST
– LATERAL LOAD TEST
– DYNAMIC LOAD TEST
– CYCLIC LOAD TEST
• STRAIN TEST
– LOW STRAIN INTEGRITY TEST
– HIGH STRAIN INTEGRITY TEST
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)

• Initial Test
– On one or more piles
– Min. 2 tests if past experience of piles in that
area is not available
• Purpose
– To check safe load calculated by static or
dynamic formulae
– Arrive at safe load
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)

• Routine Test
– On ½ percent of piles, can be increased
to 2% depending on strata
• Purpose
– To check safety of piles against safe
load
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)

• VERTICAL LOAD TEST

– Maintained load method
– Cyclic load test (To separate skin friction and end bearing)
– CRP test (Uniform penetration)
• LATERAL LOAD TEST
• PULL OUT TEST
 LOAD TEST-INITIAL TEST
• THE SAFE LOAD ON A SINGLE PILE WILL BE
LEAST OF THE FOLLOWING

– TWO THIRD OF THE FINAL LOAD AT

WHICH TOTAL DISPLACEMENT ATTAINS A
VALUE OF 12 MM

– 50 % OF THE FINAL LOAD AT WHICH THE

TOTAL DISPLACEMNT EQUALS 10 % OF
THE DIA. OF PILE
 LOAD TEST - INITIAL
• THE SAFE LOAD FOR GROUP OF PILES

– FINAL LOAD AT WHICH TOTAL

DISPLACEMENT IS 25 MM

– TWO THIRD OF FINAL LOAD AT WHICH

DISPLACEMENT IS 40 MM
LOAD SETTLEMENT CURVE
SAFE LOAD
Least of 2/3
P1 or ½ P2
FOR GROUP
Least of Load
corrp. to 25 mm
sett or 2/3
corrp. to 40 mm
sett.
LOAD IN
INCREMENTS
OF 20%
Final load
maintained for
24h
 LOAD TEST – ROUTINE TEST
• TEST LOAD WILL BE ATLEAST 1.5
TIMES THE WORKING LOAD

• MAX. SETTLEMENT SHOULD NOT >

12 MM

• FOR GROUP OF PILES MAX.

SETTLEMENT SHOULD NOT > 25 MM
STATIC LOAD TEST
 PILE LOAD TEST
(KENTELEDGE ARRANGEMENT)
PILE LOAD TEST
(WITH ANCHOR PILES)
 DYNAMIC PILE TESTING
• SUPPLEMENTS STATIC TESTING
• HIGH STRAIN TESTING
– PROVIDES DATA ON FORCE & ACCELERATION OF PILE
– EVALUATION OF BEARING CAPACITY
– FACILITATE IMMEDIATE DECISION ABOUT ACCEPTANCE OR
REJECTION OF PILE
• LOW STRAIN TESTING
– FOR TESTING CONTINUITY OF PILE
– INFORMATION ABOUT DIMENSIONS AND CONSISTANCY OF
MATERIAL

ASTM D 4945
 DEFECTS IN CAST IN SITU PILES
• HONEY COMBING DUE TO INADEQUATE VIBRATIONS
• SEGREGATION DUE TO IMPROPER CONCRETE
PLACEMENT METHODS
• WASHOUT OF CEMENT DUE TO GROUNDWATER
FLOW
• CRACKS IN PILE SHAFT DUE TO SHRINKAGE
• INCLUSION OF FOREIGN MATERIAL
• NECKING DUE TO COLLAPSE OF SIDE WALLS DURING
WITHDRAWAL OF TEMPORARY CASING
NECKING IN PILE
NECKING IN PILE
DESIGN OF PILES
 RELEVENT STANDARDS
• Manual on the Design and
Construction of well and pile
Foundations issued by RDSO
• IS 2911- Part I
– Section I – Driven cast in situ piles
– Section II- Bored cast in situ piles
– Section III- Driven precast concrete
piles
• IS 2911- Part IV- Load test
 RELEVENT STANDARDS

• Concrete Bridge code- For

structural design
• IRC- 78- For Road bridge
foundations, can be referred for
guidance
 STEPS OF DESIGN
1. From soil data, depth of scour – fix length
of pile
2. Based on thumb rules, fix dia of pile
3. Calculate load carrying capacity of single
pile using static formulae
4. Do rough design for selected group of piles.
Spacing to be based on thumb rules
5. Check design for load carrying capacity,
settlement, depth etc.
6. Revise design if required
7. Conduct load test to confirm capacity of
pile
8. Do structural design
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• DIA. OF PILE
– Bridge Manual- > normally 1 m
– IRC-78
» Bored piles on land- min. 1 m
» Bored pile in river bridge- min. 1.2 m
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Provisions are for max. dia of 2.5 m

• For Railway bridges dia. Of 1 m to 1.5

m be normally adopted
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• SPACING OF PILE
– IRC-78
» Friction- min. 3 D
» End bearing- Can be reduced to clear distance= D
that is c/c 2D
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» End bearing- hard soil- Min. 2.5 D
» End bearing- hard rock- Min. 2.0 D
» Friction- Min 3.0 D
– RDSO Manual
» Friction – min. 3 D
» End bearing- Min. 2.5 D
» Max. 4 D

• For Railway bridges spacing of 2.5 D to 3.5D

be normally adopted
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• GROUP BEHAVIOR
– IRC-78
» End bearing- If spacing > 2.5 D, no reduction
» Friction- If spacing > 3 D, no reduction
» Check for block failure
» Settlement of group/single pile given for different
width of group/pile dia
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Bored piles- end bearing- No reduction
» Other cases – descriptive guidelines given
– RDSO Manual
» Dense sand not underlying by weak soil – driven
pile – No reduction
» Loose sand soil – 50% reduction
» Sand not underlying by weak soil – bored-
reduction 33%
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• PILE CAP
– IRC-78
» Min. thickness 0.6 m or 1.5 times dia of pile,
whichever is more
» max offset of 150 mm beyond outer face
» Pile to project 50 mm into pile cap
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Offset of 100-150 mm beyond outer face
» Pile to project 50 mm into pile cap
» Should be rigid enough
» Can be designed by taking dispersion at 45
degrees both from substructure and pile upto
centre line
– RDSO Manual
» NIL
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• CONCRETE AND STEEL
– IRC-78
» M 35, Min. cement 400 kg/m3, Max. W/C 0.4,
slump 50mm (150-200 for tremie)
» Min. long reinforcement 0.4%, links min. 8 mm @
150 mm c/c.
» Min cover 75 mm.
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» M 20, Min. cement 400 kg/m3, 10% extra cement
when under water, slump 100- 180 mm (150-180
for tremie)
» Min. long reinforcement 0.4%, Min. spacing
100mm, links min 6 mm @ 150 mm c/c.
» Min cover 40 mm.
– RDSO Manual
» NIL
» CBC to be followed based on environment condition
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• FOS
– IRC-78
» 2.5 if derived from static formulae for
soil. 5 for end bearing on rock and 10 for
socket resistance.
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Appendix given for calculating strength
with static formulae
– RDSO Manual
» 3 if derived from static formulae.
» 2 if derived from load test
 WELL
FOUNDATION
 ORIGIN
• Origin in India
– have been used for hundreds of years.
• Initially masonry wells sunk for drinking water in ancient
times
• Later on same technique was used for construction of
foundation wells
• Freely used during the Mughal period, many Mughal
monuments including the Taj Mahal have well
foundations
– The Mughal used well foundations for bridges across major river
also
 HISTORY
• Used
th
for Ganga Canal at Roorkee, in the middle of
19 century
• In 1937, largest size of caisson 29.6m x 60.1m on
San Francisco Oakland bridge, California (USA)
with sinking depth of 73.8m was completed
• In India the largest well used for main towers of
Howrah bridge having a size of 24.8m x 53.5m
with maximum depth of sinking as 31.4m below
ground level
 HISTORY
• On Rajendra Pul across the Ganga at
Mokamah double D wells were used. The
largest size was 16.3m x 9.7m and 50.3m
deep

• On Mahanadi Bridge Pneumatic sinking

was done for the first time up to a depth
of 32m
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF WELL
FOUNDATION
COMMON SHAPES
 SHAPE & CROSS SECTION
• HORIZONTAL X-SECTION SHOULD SATISFY
– DREDGE HOLE TO BE LARGE ENOUGH
– NEED FOR AFFECTING STREAMLINE FLOW
– NEED TO GO FOR PNEUMATIC SINKING
– ANTICIPATED DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
– NATURE OF STRATA TO BE PENETRATED
– ACCOMMODATE BASE OF SUB-STRUCTURE
– SHOULD ALLOW RECTIFICATION OF SHIFTS & TILTS WITHOUT
DAMAGE
– TRANSMIT THE LOAD SAFELY
 SHAPE - CIRCULAR
 Most commonly used
 Advantages:
 Strength, simplicity, ease in sinking, minimum steining
thickness due to minimum flexural stresses
It requires only one dredger for sinking
The distance of the cutting edge from the dredge hole
is uniform and the chances of tilting are minimum
• Disadvantages:
– Generally adopted for piers of single line railway bridges
– 9 m is considered as the max. dia. Allowing cantilever
of 1m on either side, the maximum length of pier is
about 11 meters
– It offers relatively less resistance against lateral forces.
 SHAPE – DOUBLE D
Advantages:
– Long piers for multiple lines can be accommodated
– greater lateral stability.
– Simple shape
– Easy to sink but greater effort than circular well
Disadvantages:-
– Considerable bending moments in the straight
portion of steining.
– Four square corners at either end of the partition wall
offer considerable resistance to sinking
– Steining is relatively thick
– More prone to tilt and shift due to asymmetrical
shape and possible unequal dredging
 SHAPE – DOUBLE OCTOGONAL
Advantages:
– Free from short comings of double D well
– Blind corners are eliminated
– Bending stresses in the steining are also reduced
considerably

Disadvantages:
– Greater resistance against sinking on account of
increased surface area
– Concreting in steining is more difficult than in case of
double D wells.
 SHAPE - RECTANGULAR
Advantages:

– Can be adopted where the bridge is designed for

open foundations and a change to well foundation ,
become necessary. Rectangular well can be designed
exactly of the same size as of open foundation
– Generally adopted for depth up to 7.5m

Disadvantages:

– Bending stresses in the steining are the maximum.

 SHAPE – TWIN CIRCULAR
• Consist of two independent circular wells placed
very close to each other with a common well cap.
Has tendency to tilt

– If the depth of sinking is small say up to 7m, the clear

space between the two wells may be kept 0.6 to 1m to
avoid tilting

– For greater depth of sinking spacing of 2 to 3m may be

necessary

• Differential settlement may be there during service

 DEPTH OF WELL
• DECIDED BY

– SCOUR – DEPTH SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 1.33

TIMES THE DEEPEST SCOUR BELOW HFL

– STABILITY –
• OVERTURNING
• SLIDING
• FOUNDATION PRESSURE
 GRIP LENGTH
• The well should be sunk below the maximum scour
level to such a depth that
– the bearing capacity of the soil is sufficient
– resistance from the sides is sufficient to resist lateral forces
• As per Para 6.91 of Substructure Code, we provide a
grip length of 1/3 the maximum scour depth below
the HFL i.e. 2D/3
• Well depth can be reduced if non-scourable material
is met with at a shallow depth,
• Clay should not be considered as non-scourable
material
 GRIP LENGTH

GALE’s TABLE

RIVER CLASS DESIGN GRIP LENGTH

DISCHARGE (m)
(cumecs)
A 7000-21000 15.25
B 21000-42000 16.8
C 42000-71000 19.8
 GRIP LENGTH
SPRING’s TABLE
 TYPE OF WELLS
• Ordinary Wells – These are constructed in
their final position either on dry bed or
after making an island in the river at
construction site.
• Caissons – These are fabricated outside
the flowing channel and floated to the
final position.
CUTTING EDGE
 CUTTING EDGE
• It should cut through hard strata even if as per
bore log there is no rock
• It should be able to stand on sloping
rock/boulder/tree trunk
• It should be able to withstand occasional blast
forces
• No detail design is possible
– Typical old successful sections are followed
– Steel plate or 60 lbs rail in cutting edge and M 25
concrete with adequate reinforcement in curb is
used
 CUTTING EDGE

Z Z Z Z

X DETAIL OF FRAME "B" - 6 NOS.

DETAIL OF FRAME "A" - 56 NOS. (CUTTING EDGE OF INTERMEDIATE STEINING)
 CUTTING EDGE

MS Angle
OR 60 LB
MS RAIL
Plate
Fillet Weld
 WELL CURB
• May be precast or cast in situ
• The outer face shall be vertical
• It should transmit the super imposed load to
the bottom plug without getting overstressed.
• It should offer minimum resistance to sinking
• The slope to the vertical of the inner faces of
the curb shall be not more that 30 degree. In
sandy strata it may be up to 45 degree
 WELL CURB
• Minimum reinforcement of 70kg/m3 excluding bond
rods.
• The curb is minimum M-25 grade(IRC78).
• In case blasting is anticipated the inner face of the
curbs shall be protected by steel plates or any other
means to sufficient height
• The formwork on outer face & inner face of the curb
may be removed within 24 hours & 72 hours
respectively
• All concreting in well curb should be done in one
continuous operation.
WELL CURB
 WELL STEINING
The thickness of the steining should be fixed with
following considerations:
• It should be possible to sink the wells without
excessive kentledge
• The well do not get damaged during sinking
• It should be possible to rectify tilts and shifts
without damaging the well
• Sufficient Resistance against differential earth
pressure developed due to sudden drop or sand
blow condition
• Stresses at various stages should be under
permissible limits under all load conditions
 WELL STEINING
• If Sinking is done through clay, the steining
should be made as thick as possible
• Because of sudden sinking in clay, chances of
horizontal cracks are more
• Dewatering of well can be done once the well
has sunk to sufficient depth in clayey soil
• M 15 with 0.12% bond reinforcement and
0.04% of ties are sufficient
 STEINING THICKNESS
• Min Thickness h = K d (l)0.5 Sub to min 0.5m
where ‘d’ is external dia of circular well or dumb bell
shaped well or smaller dimension in case of double
D well
‘l’ is depth of well in m below top of well cap or
LWL whichever is more
‘K’ is a constant – for CC, = 0.03
for brick masonry, = 0.05
for Double D, = 0.039

• T=D/4 RAILWAY PRACTICE

Minimum Thickness = 1m Railway Practice

Minimum Thickness = 500mm IRC Practice
WELL STEINING
DESIGN OF WELLS
 DESIGN OF WELL
• Structural design
– Well size and depth
– Cutting edge
– Curb
– Steining
– Bottom and top plug
– Cap
• Stability analysis (As per appendix in sub-
structure code)
 WELL SIZE AND DEPTH
• Depends on size of piers ; max. 1 m
overhang is taken
• Proper founding level from bore log and
also satisfying depth of scour and grip
length criteria
• Preliminary design based on vertical and
horizontal loads AND bearing capacity
 STEINING
• Sinking Effort

= Wt of Well at the design depth – Buoyancy in Kg

Surface area in Sq./m

• Sinking effort required (as given in ME

Tech. Inst.)

• Stiff and soft clay – 0.73 to 2.93 t/m2

• Very soft clay – 1.23 to 3.42 t/m2
• Dense Sand – 3.42 to 6.84 t/m2
• Dense gravel – 4.88 to 9.76 t/m2
• For alluvium deposits, minimum sinking effort
required is of the order of 5t/m2
STEINING-SINKING
EFFORT

WL

BL
STEINING-SINKING
EFFORT
STEINING-SKIN
FRICTION

Approx Values of “F”

CONSTRUCTION STEPS
• LAYOUT
• FABRICATION OF CUTTING EDGE
• WELL CURB,CONSTRUCTION AND
PITCHING
• CONSTRUCTION OF STEINING
• MAKING OF ISLAND IF REQUIRED
• WELL SINKING
• PLUGGING,SAND FILLING AND
CASTING OF WELL CAP
 LAYOUT

 Accuracy of prime
importance
 Should always be
cross checked by at
least two independent
surveys
 Permanent theodolite
stations with the base
line on the bank will
be established to
mark reference points
 CUTTING EDGE

MS Angle or 60 lb rail
MS Plate

Fillet Weld

Section of Cutting Edge

CUTTING EDGE

Holes for
Anchoring
into well
curb

Cutting Edge Plan

Cutting Edge
 MAKING OF ISLAND

• Construction of an Island on which the well

curb can be assembled as on dry bed
– possible for water depth of 6m and velocity < 1
m/sec
• or use of floating caisson which can be
towed in to position and grounded by
pouring concrete
 SAND ISLAND

DIMENSION OF SAND ISLAND >3 TIMES DIA OF WELL

Sand Island
 WELL CURB

• Centre of the well curb should be

carefully marked.
• If the site of the pier is dry, the curb
should be assembled on wooden blocks
or sand bags placed at intervals of
about 1.5m
• If the river is full of water, the curb is
generally pitched at about 15cm above
the water level.
Fabrication of Well Curb
Well Curb Reinforcement
Well Curb Reinforcement
 STEINING
• RCC well curb should be allowed to set
for at least one week before sinking is
started.
• The chances of tilting increases
considerably if the well is made top
heavy by raising the steining too high
in the first stance.
– The best course is to sink the well curb
alone after allowing it setting time without
raising the stening over it.
 STEINING
• The steining may be raised by about 1.5m at
a time and sinking done after allowing at
least 24 hrs of setting time

• Once the well has acquired a grip of about

6m in sand, the steining can be raised about
3m at a time

• 0.12% of bond reinforcement with 0.04% of

ties shall be sufficient

• M 15 grade concrete is sufficient

• Check for tension in concrete

 STEINING
• Construction joints should be as shown
below. It should not be at the location of
laps.
Well Steining
FORM WORK FOR 4.5M LIFT
 WELL SINKING

• Sinking of well can be done by

two methods
– Open sinking of wells (COMMONLY USED
IN India)

– Pneumatic sink wells

 Hoists/Crane

WELL SINKING USING CRANE & GRAB

DREDGING OPERATION FOR WELL
Grabs or Dredgers

Bell’s dredger
 Grabs or Dredgers

• The grabs works satisfactorily in sand,

silt and soft clay
• It is unable to bite in stiff clay, kankar
and soft rock.
• For stiff clay, a modified grab is used, a large
number of iron bars are used to make a
cage, instead of mild steel plates, which
enable water to escape form the grab
• Chisels are used to loosen material, if
required and then it is taken out with grab
 CHISELS

Straight Chisel Fan Chisel

 WELL SINKING
• The submerged weight of the well
is balanced by the skin friction and the
reaction of the soil
• Weight should be sufficient or kentelege is
required.
– In cohesion less soil, quantity of sand extracted
may be two to three times the volume displaced
by the well. The ratio may be higher for light
wells having insufficient sinking effort.
– The saving affected by keeping the thickness of
steining small, not only slow down the progress
of the work but it be off set by the increased
cost of dredging.
Breaking hard strata by chiseling for sinking
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE
 When the wells are to be sunk close to each other
and the distances between them is not greater
than the diameter of the wells, they should be
sunk alternately i.e. one sunk 1/2 the diameter in
advance of the other.
 When two parallel rows of wells have to be sunk
with center of each at about 1 meter apart, one
row should be sunk before the other.
 It is also advisable to sink the alternate wells in a
row in preference to sinking them one after the
other.
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE

 While sinking wells joined together,

excavation in both the dredge holes should
be carried out simultaneously.

 The sinking of number of wells

commenced in one season should be such
that they can be sunk to at least 66% of
their depth before the seasonal flood.

 Wells not reaching this stage before rains

should be protected e.g., by provision of
temporary cap, sand filling etc.
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE

 Tendency to dump all the dredged material

close to the well and only on one side is
wrong and may cause appreciable
difference of pressure.
 In case of abutment where there is high
bank on one side, dig the pit of sufficiently
larger sizes leaving about 6-8 meters clear
distance round the well.
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE
• Very often the sinking is obstructed by
stray boulders or rock or by logs of wood.
– Resistance to sinking increases suddenly and
the well starts tilting.
– overcome the obstruction by loading the well
on that side and carrying out heavy dredging
on that side.
– The obstruction either rolls into the dredge
hole or the cutting edge is able to cut it.
– If the method does not succeed, the
obstruction is removed by sending divers or by
using explosives
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE
• Dewatering can also be done with advantage
when there is an obstruction under the cutting
edge.

• Dewatering should not be done unless the well

has a grip of at least 9 meters in sand.

• Even when the grip is more than 9 meters, tilting

of the well should be watched continuously while
dewatering it,
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE
• For sinking in clay

– Steining should be made as thick as possible

– excavation can be carried out much more

conveniently and speedily by dewatering it
completely once it has gone into clay by 1 to
1.5m

– If a small sand blow is noticed a large number of

sand bags, scrap gunny bags and branches of
trees full of green leaves are heaped.
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE

• For sinking in clay

– In stiff clay, some times well does not

sink even if earth is fully removed and
wells dewatered, In such cases blasting
is used below the cutting edge in order
to shake the well.
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE

• Cracks due to explosives or bad

construction
– Running horizontally
• not so serious- may develop during the
process of rectifying tilts.
• to be cement grouted, holes may have to be
driven through steining in order to reach the
cracks.
 POINTS OF IMPORTANCE

• Cracks running vertically

– Very serious, may develop during sinking by

excessive water pressure

– It may be necessary to fill the well with

concrete up to the height of the cracks.
Quick Sand Conditions
– May occur when fine sand/
silt underlie an impervious
layer of clay and there is
considerable hydraulic
pressure below clay layer.
– As soon as the layers of clay
is pierced through, a steep
hydraulic gradient is
established, creating
incipient motion
– It has no shear strength in
this state and allows the well
to sink into it without
offering any resistance.
 Quick Sand Conditions
•

– Wells known to have sunk suddenly by

5 or 6 meters
It become extremely difficult to raise the
•
steining height up to the water surface
• Raising of steining to a considerable height
should be done when the cutting edge is well
within the clay layer
– Raising of water level inside the well
• No dewatering
• A coffer dam may be raised on the steining
and water level raised inside the well.
 TILTS AND SHIFTS
• Precaution to avoid tilts and
shifts
(a) The outer surface of the well curb and steining
must be regular and smooth
(b) The radius of the curb is kept about 25mm to
40mm larger than the outside radius of the well
steining.
(c) Dredging should be done carefully
 TILTS AND SHIFTS
• Tilt and shift should be
measured daily

– RECORD THE TILT & SHIFT ALONG THE

TWO PERPENDICULAR AXIS

– PAINT MARK ON STEINING

GAUGE MARKING ON STEINING
 TILTS AND SHIFTS (Correction)

Eccentric
loading
 TILTS AND SHIFTS (Correction)

Eccentric
loading
 TILTS AND SHIFTS (Correction)

Packing low
side of well
 TILTS AND SHIFTS (Tolerance)
• A tilt of 1 in 100 and shift of D/40, subject
to a maximum of 150 mm is taken into
account in the design of well foundation as
per railway practice
• As per IRC, Tilt 1in 80 and shift 150 of mm
is permissible.
• If greater tilt and shifts occur, their effect
on bearing pressure on soil, steining
stresses, change in span etc. should be
examined.
 Pneumatic Sinking of wells
• Required when open sinking cannot be
done

• Complete dewatering is also not possible

– due to sand blowing
– or due to the inflow of water being so heavy
that pumping becomes prohibitive in cost.

Pneumatic sinking is 5 to 6 times costlier

– In India wells are so designed that open
sinking is carried out to the extent possible
– The depth to which pneumatic sinking may be
done without undue risk to the lives of the men
may be taken as 33.5m
 Pneumatic Sinking of wells
• Pneumatic sinking is done by fixing covers on the
dredge holes and pumping air into them so that
the compressed air pushes out all the water up to
the level of the cutting edge.

• Men are then sent inside the well to carry out

excavation

• Air locks are fitted to the wells to enable the men

and materials to move from inside to outside of
the wells and vice versa

• Separate shafts are provided for the movement of

buckets full of materials and ladders for the men
PNEUMATIC SINKING

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
FOR WORKING
UNDER COMPRESSED AIR
IS:4188
 PLUGGING

• Bottom Plug
– Desirable to give a spherical shape
– Desirable to have a good idea of the shape
of the dredging pit either by probing or by
sending divers.
– The top of the bottom plug shall be kept
300mm above the top edge of the inclined
face of the curb
– Under dry condition concrete mix shall
generally be 1:3:6
BOTTOM PLUGGING USING TREMIE PIPE
 SAND FILLING
• Sand filling does not add to any structural
strength
• Only adds to increase weight to provide
stability.
• Reduce the tensile forces developed at the
base caused by bending moments.
• It partly counters the stresses induced in the
steining due to the soil and hydraulic pressure
acting on the well from outside.
• Concrete filling in place of sand may be
resorted to if well is not very deep or if steining
got cracked or damaged.
 TOP PLUG

• A 300 mm thick plug of cc 1:3:6

• Stepping is done in the steining
concrete to give a proper bearing
to the top plug.
Top plugging
 WELL CAP

• Transmits the load from the pier to the

stening.
• This is designed as two way RCC slab.
• Bottom of well cap is preferably kept at low
water level or up to 300 mm above the low
water level. (As per M.E.’s Technical letter
dated 8.6.05 it is to be kept at same level).
 CAISSONS

• In case where the velocity of water in the river is

high making it difficult to construct either an island
or cofferdam to construct a well, caisson type
construction has been used.
• The caisson is pre cast at the shore with the bottom
which is generally provided with openings which are
plugged, and toed to the required position by tugs
and then plugs are removed to permit the caisson
to reach the bottom of the ocean bed.
• Sinking can also be by concreting in pockets
 CAISSONS

Example of caisson foundation in India

are -
Ganga bridge at Mokameh,
Brahmaputra bridge in Assam
Mahanadi Bridge at Cuttack
 Well v/s Pile
 Wells have a large cross sectional area and
hence more bearing capacity of soil.
 q=5.4 N2 B + 16(100+N2)D
 Well are hallow and most of the material is at
periphery. This provides a large section
modulus.
 Useful in controlling deflection against high horizontal force
 it is possible to sink a well through soil having
boulders, logs of wood, whereas Piles can not
be driven
 Well v/s Pile

 In case of wells, it is possible to visually

examine the strata through which sinking is
done and material on which it is finally
resting, hence the bearing capacity of a well
is certain. On other hand bearing capacity
of pile is generally uncertain
 Concreting in the staining of wells is done
under dry conditions and the quality of
concrete is much better than in case of cast
in situ piles.
 Well v/s Pile

 Size of well foundation cannot be reduced

indefinitely and hence it uneconomical to
use well foundation for very small loads,
pile foundations are more suitable.