GEOMETRIC

DESIGN
ELEMENTS
 It is defined as the angle of
intersection of two or more roadway
from the centerline joining an
intersection.

AASHTO and PennDOT design

recommends that an alignment should
be as close to 90° but can have a
minimum of 60°.
Figure 31. Alignment, Chester County Multimodal Handbook 2016
It is the rise and fall of a given roadway
at an intersection.

According to AASHTO 2011, grades in

excess of 3 percent should be avoided.
Where conditions make designs unduly
expensive, grades should not exceed 6
percent. Storage areas should be flat or
0.5 percent minimum to 2 percent
maximum.
Figure 32.1 Intersection Grade, Chester Country Multimodal Handbook (2016)
According to DPWH Highway Safety
Design Standard Manual,
channelization is used to merge
traffic whilst reducing speeds to the
conflicting stations.
Figure 33. Typical shapes of Channelization
CHANNELIZATION ISLAND
The following purposes of Channelization island
are cited from the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices:
Separation of conflicts;
Control of angle of conflict;
Reduction of excessive pavement areas;
Regulation of traffic and indication of the
proper use of the intersection;
Arrangement to favor a predominant
turning movement;
Protection of Pedestrians;
Protection and storage of turning vehicles;
And, Location of traffic control.
It is the sharpness of turning by two intersection
streets, independent of the angle of streets. The
determination of radii will depend on the design
vehicle that is known to be using the intersection
and or highway.
Table 1. Standard Radii, AASHTO and PennDOT
Area AASHTO Standard PennDOT Standard

Rural
15.24 m minimum 7.62m. minimum for minor

cross

9.14 m. minimum for

10.67 m minimum on local roads with
major cross streets
low truck volume.

12.19 m. minimum with

high truck volume

Urban
4.57 m minimum, 2ft desirable on local

roads with pedestrian.

9.14m. minimum for industrial areas

and areas with higher truck volume.

 TURNING RADII

A standard should be 10–15 feet

(3.05 – 4.57 meters), according to National
Association of City Transportation Officials.
In small cities radii as small as 2 feet (0.61 m)
can be used.
A standard should be 15 feet (4.57 meters),
according to National Association of City
Transportation Officials.
Figure 35. Turning Radii, Chester county multimodal handbook 2016
Figure 36. Curb Radii
 Sight distance is necessary for
a safe intersection design. A
corner sight distance is the
maximum visibility of traffic objects
that a driver can see. It is
paramount in intersection where
traffic control is not established
and must be free from obstruction.
Figure 37. Chester county multimodal handbook 2016
 According to DPWH’s Road Safety
Manual, intersection signalization
improve safety by: 1) separating
vehicle movements with less delay, 2)
enables merging from of vehicle from
side road to cross or enter the major
road, and 3) assist pedestrians crossing.
It is the distance from the centerline to
centerline between intersections. The
intersection spacing guidelines under
AASHTO indicated that the main purpose of
spacing should be to minimize possible
conflicts such as traffic congestion build up
that extend from one intersection through
an adjacent intersection, and “friction” that
could occur from signal control and turning
movements at intersections.
 DESIGN
PROCEDURE
 1. DETERMINE THE MOST
SUITABLE TYPE OF INTERSECTION

• Determine the number of possible legs of the

intersection. It can be 3 leg or a T intersection,
4 leg intersection, or multi-leg intersection
depending on the number of roadway
converging at that point.
2. DETERMINE IF THE PROPOSED INTERSECTION
IS SIGNALIZED OR UNSIGNALIZED

• Warrant 1, Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume

• Warrant 2, Four-Hour Vehicular Volume
• Warrant 3, Peak Hour
• Warrant 4, Pedestrian Volume
• Warrant 5, School Crossing
• Warrant 6, Coordinated Signal System
• Warrant 7, Crash Experience
• Warrant 8, Roadway Network
• Warrant 9, Intersection Near a Grade Crossing
Warrant 1: Eight-hour Vehicular
Volume
 Warrant 4:
Pedestrian Volume
 Warrant 7: Crash Experience

• Crash experience
– Five (5) or more reported
crashes, of types
susceptible to correction by
a traffic control signal, have
occurred within a 12-
month period, each crash
involving personal injury or
property damage.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Recommend an appropriate traffic

560
control for the intersection of MNR
and Bacarra Avenue.

320
BACARRA AVENUE 100

200

120

MANILA NORTH
NB + SB = 560 + 550 = 1,110
550
ROAD

EB + WB = 300
Check Warrant 1:

Major: 1,110 veh/hr

Minor: 200 veh/hr

CONCLUSION:
- Warranted for traffic
signal control
Check Warrant 4 :

CONCLUSION (Based on Warrant 3)

- Warranted for traffic signal control
3. APPLY THE STANDARD ELEMENTS
OF INTERSECTION
 STANDARDS
PEDESTRIAN ROUTES
Sidewalk 1.5 m
Crosswalk 4 m
Curb cur ramp
width of ramp 0.9 m
slope 6%
landing (L x W) 1.2 x 1.2 m
cross slope @ landing 2%
Footbridge
CHANNELIZATION 60° to 90°
TURNING ROADWAY
PAVEMENT MARKING
Solid line
White line
Box junction
Lane Arrow
ALIGNMENT 90° to 60°
INTERSECTION GRADE
upgrade and downgrade 6% maximum
storage 0.5% to 2%
RADII
Turning Radii 3.05 - 4.57 m
Curb Radii 4.57 m
SIGHT DISTANCE
Design Speed Stopping Sight Distance Intersection Sight Distance
(kph) (m) (m)
20 20 45
30 35 65
40 50 85
50 65 105
60 85 130
70 105 150
80 130 170
90 160 190
100 185 210
110 220 230
120 250 255
INTERSECTION SIGNALIZATION
major street 600 vehicles/hour
minor street 200 vehicles/ hour
SPACING
Local Road 80 - 100 m
National Road 150 - 200 m
4 . TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
Roadway Segment Analysis
• Selection of the number of
lanes is determined by the LOS v/c ratio
design volume and level of
service (LOS) at which the A < 0.20
road is expected/desired to
operate. B 0.21 – 0.50
• Level of Service (LOS) is
qualitatively determined by C 0.51 – 0.70
the v/c ratio (volume to
capacity ratio). D 0.71 – 0.85
• Service volume is the
design volume E 0.85 – 1.00
corresponding to a desired
LOS. F > 1.00
Source: DPWH Highway Planning Manual
LOS Description Flow Condition

A Free flow

B Reasonably free flow

C Stable flow

Approaching unstable
D
flow

E Unstable flow

Forced or breakdown
F
flow
 Design Volume
• Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV)
– Used for multi-lane highways
𝑫𝑫𝑯𝑽 = 𝑨𝑨𝑫𝑻 × 𝑲 × 𝑫
• Where
– AADT = Average annual daily traffic, veh/hr
– K = proportion of daily traffic occurring during
the peak hour, expressed as a decimal (7% to
15%)
– D = proportion of the peak traffic traveling in the
peak direction
Passenger Car Equivalent Factors
(PCEF)
No. Vehicle Type PCEF

1 Motor tricycle 2.50

2 Passenger car 1.00

3-5 Passenger and goods utility and small bus 1.50

6 Large bus 2.00

7 Rigid truck, 2 axles 2.00

8 Rigid truck, 3 axles 2.50

9 Truck semi-trailer, 3 and 4 axles 2.50

10 Truck semi-trailer, 5+ axles 2.50

11 Truck trailer, 4 axles 2.50

12 Truck trailer, 5+ axles 2.50

Source: DPWH Highway Planning Manual

Road/Highway Capacity
 Example:
• Daang Maharlika (2 lanes)
– Lane width = 3.50 meters
– AADT Composition
• Cars = 7,500
• Buses = 650
• Trucks = 720
• Motor tricycles = 3,800
– K = 9%, D = 70%

• Determine the LOS of this road section of Daang

Maharlika.
 Example:
• v is the design volume while c is the basic road capacity
• v = [(7,500)(1.0) + (650)(2.0) + (720)(2.50) + (3,800)(2.50)]
x 0.09 = 1,809 pcu/hour
• From the first table, 2-lane, 2-way highway, capacity c =
2,400 pcu/hour
• v/c = 1,809/2,400 = 0.75
• LOS = D
5. BASIC OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES
 Basic Operational
Principles
• Saturation flow rate

– Maximum flow that could pass through an intersection if 100% green

time was allocated to that movement.
– Saturation flow is typically assumed to be 1,900 passenger cars per
hour per lane.
 Degree of Saturation

• Flow Ratio
Design Traffic Flow𝑖
𝐹𝑅𝑖 =
Saturation Flow Rate𝑖
– Demand intensity in any lane group

• A flow ratio > 1.0 indicates traffic demand exceeding capacity, therefore,
traffic flow cannot be handled properly.
• Saturation flow is typically assumed to be 1,900 passenger cars per hour
per lane.
Degree of Saturation (HCM, 2000)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Design the Northbound Leg of the
intersection given the following
turning volumes in pcu. Assume
saturation flow rate to be 1,900
pc/hr/lane.

2nd AVENUE 650

1,350
1st AVENUE

250
 2nd AVENUE

1st AVENUE

1.05
0.13
2nd AVENUE 0.34

1st AVENUE

0.36
0.49

Proposal # 1
2nd AVENUE

0.13

0.70
0.36
1st AVENUE

Proposal # 2
2nd AVENUE 0.34

0.13
1st AVENUE

0.36

Proposal # 3
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Design the intersection given the

2,850
following vehicular volumes per
leg in pcu. Assume saturation
flow rate to be 1,900 pc/hr/lane.

2nd AVENUE 1,650

1,050

1st AVENUE

2,550
 0.73
2nd AVENUE 0.42

0.27

𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.42 + 0.73

1st AVENUE

0.65

𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓
 0.50
0.29
2nd AVENUE

0.18

𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.29 + 0.50

AVENUE

𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗
0.47
1st
 Basic Operational Principles
• Lost time
– The portion of time at the beginning of each green period and a portion of
each yellow change plus red clearance period that is not usable by
vehicles
– Clearance lost time (All-red time)
The time, in seconds, between signal phases during which an intersection
is not used by any critical movements.
– Start-up lost time
The additional time, in seconds, consumed by the first few vehicles in a
queue at a signalized intersection above and beyond the saturation
headway due to the need to react to the initiation of the green phase and
to accelerate to a steady flow condition.
– The HCM defines a default value of 4 seconds per phase for total lost time
(the sum of start-up lost time and clearance lost time)
 Basic Operational Principles

• Effective green time

– The time during which a given traffic movement or set of
movements may proceed; it is equal to the cycle length minus the
effective red time
– Mathematically,
𝒈 = 𝑮 + 𝑨 + 𝑹 − (𝒍𝟏 + 𝒍𝟐 )
– Where g is the effective green time
– G is the actual green interval
– Y is the actual amber change interval
– R is the actual red clearance interval
– l1 is the start-up lost time, and
– l2 is the clearance lost time (all values in seconds)
 Basic Operational Principles
• Capacity
– At signalized intersections, capacity for a particular movement is
defined by two elements: the maximum rate at which vehicles can
pass through a given point in an hour under prevailing conditions
(known as saturation flow rate), and the ratio of time during which
vehicles may enter the intersection.
– These are shown mathematically,
𝒈
𝒄=𝒔×
𝑪
– Where c is the capacity
– s is the saturation flow rate of the lane group in vehicles per hour
– g is the effective green time for the movement in seconds, and
– C is the cycle length in seconds.
 Basic Operational Principles
• Volume-to-capacity ratio
– The volume-to-capacity ratio, also known as the v/c ratio or the
degree of saturation, is calculated for each movement using,
𝒗 𝒗 𝒗𝑪
= 𝒈 =
𝒄 𝒔× 𝒔𝒈
𝑪
– where v is the demand volume of the subject movement in vehicles
per hour and the remaining variables are as defined previously.
 6 . DETERMINE THE PHASING
• Phasing is a process by which right of way is given to
particular movements in a logical manner with the primary
purpose of minimizing the number of conflicts.
• The number of conflicts at an intersection depends largely
on the geometry of the intersection and turning
prohibition.
• It may be observed that as the number of legs of the
intersection increases, the number of conflicts increases
exponentially.
– 3-leg = 9 conflicts
– 4-leg = 32 conflicts
– 5-leg = at least 120 conflicts
– 6-leg = at least 280 conflicts
 Phasing
• Here are some basic guidelines when planning for the phase
patterns:
– Start with the most problematic/heavy movement.
– Add movements one at a time and see to it that they are not in
conflict with the previous movements.
– The number of phases must not exceed the number of legs of the
intersection.
– Rearrange the phase patterns so as to follow a logical order.
 Phasing Patterns

Leading/Lagging Green Overlapping Phases

Two Phases

Exclusive Left-Turn Phase (3-phases)

Four Phases Two Left-Turn Phases
 Sample Problem:
 Given the volumes per movement, design the most appropriate and logical
phasing pattern for the unsignalized intersection.
Answer!
 7. Traffic Signal Timing
• Cycle
– One complete indication of green, amber, and red.
– Its length is constant for a pre-timed or fixed time signals, and it varies
for traffic-actuated signals depending on traffic demand.
– Cycle length can be determined using two methods:
• Webster’s formula
• HCM method
• Webster’s Method

𝟏. 𝟓𝑳 + 𝟓
𝑪𝒐 =
𝟏 − σ∅𝒊=𝟏 𝒀𝒊

• Where Co = optimum cycle length (sec)

L = total lost time per cycle (sec)

Yi = maximum value of the flow ratio for all lane groups

using phase i
φ = number of phases
• HCM Method (lane group or approach)

𝒗 𝒗𝒊 𝒗𝒊 𝑪
= 𝑿𝒊 = 𝒈𝒊 =
𝒄 𝒊 𝒔𝒊 × 𝒔𝒊 𝒈 𝒊
𝑪
• Where Xi = v/c ratio for lane group or approach I
vi = actual flow rate for lane group or approach i
si = saturation flow for lane group or approach I
gi = effective green time for lane group i or approach i
• HCM Method (whole intersection)

𝑪
𝑿𝒄 = ෍(𝒗/𝒔)𝒄𝒊
𝑪−𝑳
𝒊

• Where Xc = critical v/c ratio for the intersection

σ𝑖(𝑣/𝑠)𝑐𝑖 = summation of the ratios of actual flows to saturation
flow for all critical lanes, groups, or approaches
C = cycle length (sec)
L = total lost time per cycle computed as the sum of the lost time,
(li) for each critical signal phase
Degree of Congestion
 Traffic Signal Timing

• Green time allocations

– After the cycle length is computed, the total green time has to be allocated
to the different movements or phases. This is normally achieved by dividing
it in proportion to the y-values.
– For a particular phase i, its green time is estimated as follows:

𝒚𝒊
𝒈𝒊 = × 𝑪𝒐 − 𝑳
𝒀
Where yi = known as the flow ratio, the ratio of approach flow to
saturation flow for each movement i
Sample Problem!

 Given the volumes per

movement and phasing
pattern, allocate the green
time to the 2 phases.
 Use amber = 3 sec
 All red = 2 sec
 Starting loss = 2 sec
 S = 1,900 pc/hr/lane

 Determine the degree of

saturation of the
intersection.
 Solution:
 Using Webster’s method:

Volume,
Phase Approach No. of lanes SFR, pcu/hr y-value Y-value
pcu/hr
WB 2 1,650 3800 0.43
1 0.43
EB 2 1,050 3800 0.28
NB 2 1,250 3800 0.33
2 0.41
SB 2 1,550 3800 0.41
 Solution:
Volume,
Phase Approach No. of lanes SFR, pcu/hr y-value Y-value
pcu/hr
WB 2 1,650 3800 0.43
1 0.43
EB 2 1,050 3800 0.28
NB 2 1,250 3800 0.33
2 0.41
SB 2 1,550 3800 0.41

𝑌 = 0.43 + 0.41 = 0.84

Flow Ratio
• Demand intensity in any lane group
• A flow ratio > 1.0 indicates traffic demand exceeding capacity, therefore,
traffic flow cannot be handled properly.
• For traffic signal operations to work effectively,
𝒀 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎

• From our sample problem, southbound and westbound movements are

critical and that together, they require 84% of the effective green time,
with 16% of the time available for something else.
 Solution:
• Using Webster’s method to compute for cycle length:

1.5𝐿 + 5
𝐶𝑜 =
1 − σ∅𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖

𝐿 = 2 × starting loss + 2 × all red = 2 × 2 + 2 × 2 = 8 sec

𝑌 = 0.43 + 0.41 = 0.84

1.5𝐿 + 5 1.5 × 8 + 5 17
𝐶𝑜 = ∅
= =
1 − σ𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖 1 − 0.84 0.16

𝑪𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 ≈ 𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬

(The cycle length is normally rounded off to multiples of 5 or 10.)
 Solution:
• The computed optimum cycle length using Webster’s method is 110 seconds, and the total
lost time is 8 seconds. This results to total usable or effective green, g:
𝑔 = 𝐶𝑜 − 𝐿 = 110 − 8 = 102 sec
• This effective green is allocated as follows:
For phase 1:
𝑦1 0.43
𝑔1 = × 𝑔 = × 102 = 52.21
𝑌 0.84

𝒈𝟏 = 𝟓𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜
For phase 2:
𝑦2 0.41
𝑔2 = ×𝑔= × 102 = 49.79
𝑌 0.84

𝒈𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎 𝐬𝐞𝐜
Or simply
𝑔2 = 102 − 52 = 50 sec
 Signal Timing Diagram

 Using C = 110 seconds, the timing diagram is shown as follows:

G1 = 51 s R1 = 56 s

R2 = 48 s G2 = 49 s
 Solution:
• Intersection degree of saturation

𝐶𝑌 110 × 0.84
𝑋= =
𝐶−𝐿 110 − 8

𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏