DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

ANDHRA PRADESH
Name : A.V.VENUGOPAL.
Designation : Lecturer.
Branch : ECE.
Institute : G.P.W, Hindupur.
Semester : Third.
Subject : Communication Engineering
Code : EC-304.
Topic : Transmission lines and
Radio wave propagation.
Sub-topic : Reflection coefficient & SWR.
Duration : 50Mts.
Teaching Aids : PPTs,Diagrams.
Revised by : G.Sailendrakumar, S/Lecturer,GPT,Nandyal
9EC304.75 1
OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this period , you would be able to know

what is meant by
• Reflection
• Velocity of propagation
• Velocity factor
• Reflection coefficient and
• Expression for reflection coefficient.
• Traveling wave and its velocity
• Incident wave and reflected wave
• Standing wave formation on transmission line with open
circuit and short circuit
• Standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient.

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Recap

All ready we discussed about :

• The concept of characteristic importance.

• Termination of transmission line.

• Properties of transmission lines.

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REFLECTION

• Reflection is an un desirable effect occurring in a

transmission line.
• Reflection of energy occurs when there is an
-Impedance irregularity
(or)
-When the terminating impedance is not
equal to characteristic impedance Z0

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REFLECTION

• The phenomenon of setting up of a reflected wave

at the load due to improper termination or due to
impedance irregularity in a transmission line is known
as reflection

• Reflections on lines are characterized by the

reflection coefficient and the standing wave ratio.

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 Propagation velocity

• The speed at which the RF energy travels (propagates)

down on a transmission line is called propagation
velocity.

• It is denoted by Vp.

• The speed at which energy is propagated along a

transmission line is always less than the speed of light.

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 Propagation velocity

• In a coaxial cable with solid poly ethylene as dielectric

Vp is 66% of speed of light.

• In a coaxial cable with poly ethylene foam as dielectric

Vp is 78% of speed of light.

• For air dielectric cable Vp is 95% of velocity of light.

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 Dielectric Name Velocity of propagation

1. Solid poly ethylene 66% of C

1. Poly ethylene foam 78% of C

95% of C
2. Air dielectric
where C is velocity of
light=3*108

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 Velocity factor
• Vf velocity factor denotes the amount by which
propagation velocity is decreased

• Vf = Vp/C ----------(1)

Where

• Vf is Velocity factor as a decimal fraction

• Vp is propagation velocity on the line

• C is speed of light in free space.

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 Velocity factor

• Vf is expressed as percentage

• Velocity factor for a transmission line depends almost

entirely on the dielectric used .

• Vf=1/√εr ------------------(2)

Where εr=line’s dielectric constant.

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Problem:

Find the velocity factor and propagation velocity for a

cable with a Teflon as the dielectric (εr= 2.1).
• Vf =1/√εr.
• = 1/ √2.1. = 0.69.

• Vf =VP / C
• VP =Vf × C.
• Vp = 0.69 ×300×106 m/s
• =2.7×106 m/s.

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 Reflection coefficient

• Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the reflected

voltage (or current) to the incident voltage ( or current) and
is usually denoted by ‘к’

• Reflection coefficient is a vector quantity having magnitude

and direction.

• When dealing with voltage ratio it is called voltage reflection

coefficient.

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 Reflection coefficient
• When dealing with current ratio it is called current
reflection coefficient.
• Current reflection coefficient is negative of voltage
reflection coefficient.
• Vr / Vi = к ------------------------- (3)
• Ir / Ii = - к ------------------------- (4)
• Vr _- reflected voltage ,Vi - Incident voltage.
• Vr -reflected current , Ii -incident current

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 Reflection coefficient

• Current reflection coefficient is negative of voltage

reflection coefficient.
• Vr / Vi = к ------------------------- (3)
• Ir / Ii = - к ------------------------- (4)
• Vr _- reflected voltage
• Vi - Incident voltage.
• Ir - Reflected current
• Ii - Incident current

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• For a matched line reflection coefficient is Zero.

• Characteristic impedance Zo and terminating load

impedance ZLdecides the value of reflection
coefficient.

• Reflection coefficient interms of ZL and Zo

ZL - Zo
• Is к= -----------------
ZL + Zo

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 Reflection coefficient

• When RF energy travels along a transmission line

standing waves are formed on the line due to mismatch.

• Incident wave and reflected wave add vectorially to

produce standing wave.

• There will be only one forward wave when the line is

matched.

• Reflection takes place when there is a mismatch at the

end.

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 Reflection coefficient
• Reflection coefficient к =vr /vi
=(zL –zo)/(zL+zo).

• When a wave is traveled on a line there will be a phase

shift produced depending on the length of the line.

• VSWR= (1+ к)/(1- к).

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 The impedance of a lossless line
The impedance of a lossless transmission line is given by
the equation

• i.e., λ/4 means 90o λ/2 means 180o

3λ/4 means 270o λ means 360o

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Expression for Reflection coefficient in terms of ZL and Zo .

• At the load the total voltage will be

VT =Vr +Vi (6)
• Vi – incident voltage, Vr – reflected voltage the total
current IT into the load is
• IT = VT / ZL (7)
• The total current at the load will be
• IT = Ii + Ir (8)
• Ii - Incident current, Ir- Reflected current.

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• On the line the incident voltage and current will be
related by the characteristic impedance Zo. So the
incident and reflected current will be
• Ii - Vi / Zo (9)
• Ir - Vr
Zo (10)
• Negative sign in equation denotes the direction of
reflected current is opposite to the Incident current,
• I T = Ii + Ir (11)
• From equation (7)
• VT / ZL = Ii + Ir (12)

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• From equation (6)

• (Vr +Vi) / ZL = Ii + Ir

• From eq. (9) & (10)

• (Vr + Vi)/ZL = Vi/Zo - Vr/ Zo (14)

• Rearranging and simplifying

• Vr /ZL+ Vi/ZL = Vi/Zo - Vr/ Zo

• Vr /ZL+ Vr /Zo = Vi/Zo - Vi/ ZL

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• Vr[1/ZL + 1/Zo ] = Vi[1/Zo - 1/ZL ]

• Vr [(Zo+ ZL)/ ZL Zo ] = Vi [(Zo- ZL)/ ZL Zo ]

• Voltage reflection coefficient

• к =Vr / Vi = (ZL- Zo )/(Zo + ZL).

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PROBLEM:

• A line of characteristic impedance 50 Ώ is terminated in

a 25 Ώ load impedance, calculate the reflection
coefficient.

• Reflection coefficient

ZL - Z0 25-50
Is к = ----------- = ---------
ZL + Zo 25 +50

к = 0.333

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Traveling wave

• A sinusoidal wave applied to a matched line, will travel

towards the load from the source end, and disappear in
to the load.

• Such a wave is called a traveling wave.

• The signal at any point along the line will be the same as
the source except for a time delay.

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Traveling wave
• The velocity of the wave traveling on the line is vp =f λ
where f = frequency in Hz, λ=wave length in meters.

• Phase delay produced by a given line is

• Φ=(360)L/ λ

• Φ=phase shift in degrees

• L=length of the line

• λ=wave length of the line.

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Standing waves

• In a mismatched line when a sine wave is applied at the

source end it will travel along the line towards the load.
This is called the forward wave or incident wave.

• A part of the energy will be reflected back from the load

due to mismatch, which travels towards the source is
called reflected wave.

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Standing waves

• Reflected wave magnitude and phase depends on type

of termination.

• At any point on the line the two waves on the line add
vertically ;to produce a resultant wave,

• This resultant wave is stationary on the line and is called

standing wave.

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Standing waves in a transmission line
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 Open circuited line

• At the open circuited end of the line ,the peak voltage is

maximum.

• One quarter wave length away from that end ,the

incident and reflected voltage exactly cancel at each
other because the two signals have equal amplitude but
with opposite phase.

• The voltage is zero at the point.

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 Open circuited line

• At a distance of one half wave length from the open

circuited end, there is another voltage maximum.

• This repeats for every half wave length of segment of the

line.

• The current on the line will be maximum one quarter

wave length away and is zero at the open end.

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 Open circuited line

Fig : open circuited line.

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 Short circuited line

• The voltage at the load end is zero.

• There is no voltage at the shorted end.

• The voltage maximum occurs at one quarter wave length

from the load end.

• Null occurs at one half wave length.

• The cycle repeats for every half wave length segment of

the length.

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 Short circuited line

• The current on short circuited line has a maximum at the

termination.
• The current on the line will have a minimum one quarter
wave length away, and another maximum occur at a
distance of one half wave length from the load.

Short circuited line

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 Mismatched line

• In mismatched line ZL is other thanZ0

• The voltage standing wave formed will have a maxima

and minima.

• The voltage minima is not zero.

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Standing wave on a transmission line
terminate in a load not equal to z0..

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 Standing wave ratio

• Standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of maximum

to minimum current or voltage on a line having standing
waves.
• It is abbreviated as SWR .
• While dealing with the voltage ratio is called voltage
standing wave ratio.

VSWR=Vmax /Vmin
or
S=Vmax/Vmin.

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 Standing wave ratio

• SWR is a measure of mismatch between the load and

the transmission line.

• In general SWR is always greater than unity.

• VSWR=1 with ZL=Z0,for matched load.

• Higher value of SWR denotes the higher amount of

mismatch.

• SWR is easier to measure than reflection coefficient.

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Relation between SWR and ‘k’ (Reflection coefficient)

SWR=Vmax/Vmin.

• The maximum voltage on the line occurs where the

incident and reflected signals are in phase.

• The minimum voltage is found where the two waves are

out of phase.

• Vmax=Vi+Vr and

• Vmin=Vi-Vr

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• SWR=(Vi+Vr)/(Vi-Vr)

=1+(Vr/Vi)/1-(Vr/Vi)

• SWR=(1+к )/(1- к)

• By rearranging к in terms of SWR is

к=SWR-1 / SWR+1.

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 Expression of SWR for zl>z0

• SWR=1+к/1- к
=1+{(ZL-Z0)/(ZL+Z0}/1-{(ZL-Z0 /(ZL+Z0 )}
= (ZL+Z0+ ZL-Z0)/ (ZL+Z0- ZL+Z0)
= ZL/Z0

• Similarly if ZL>Z0

• SWR=Zo/ZL

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 Summary
• A sine wave moving from source end to load end on a
matched line is called traveling wave.

• The velocity of a traveling wave is Vp=fλ.

where f is frequency in Ω and λ.

• Depending on the length of the line there will be phase

shift produced.

Φ=(360)L/λ

where Φ=phase shift in degrees

L=length of the line in meters
λ=wave length of the line in meters.
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 Summary

• Incident wave and reflected wave add vectorially to

produce resultant wave called stationary wave.

• VSWR=Vmax/Vmin.

• SWR is a measure of mismatch between the load and

the line.

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 Summary
• Reflection is a phenomena of setting up a reflected
voltage wave at the load due to improper termination or
due to impedance irregularity in a transmission line.

• Velocity of propagation is a speed at which the RF

energy propagates on a transmission line.

• Velocity factor denotes the amount by which the

propagation velocity is decreased in a media.

• Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of reflected

voltage (or current) to the incident voltage (or current).

contd/...........
9EC304.75 43
 Summary
• velocity factor Vf=Vp/C

where
Vf is Velocity factor as a decimal fraction
Vp is propagation velocity on the line
C is speed of light in free space.

• Velocity factor for a transmission line depends almost

entirely on the dielectric used .

• Vf=1/√εr ------------------(2)

Where εr=line’s dielectric constant.

Contd/.....
9EC304.75 44
 Summary

• For a matched line reflection coefficient is Zero.

• Characteristic impedance Zo and terminating load

impedance ZLdesides the value of reflection
coefficient.

• Reflection coefficient in terms of ZL and Zo

ZL - Zo
• Is к= -----------------
ZL + Zo

9EC304.75 45
 QUIZ

1.In a standing wave an a open circuited line voltage

maxima occurs at a distance from the load end is :

(a) .n(λ/4)
(b) .n(λ/2)
(c) .3(λ/4)
(d) . λ/4

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 QUIZ

2.VSWR is the ratio of

(a). Vmin/Vmax.
(b). Pmax/Pmin.
(c). Imax/Imin.
(d). Vmax/Vmin.

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 QUIZ

3.Nomal value of SWR is ------

(a). 0
(b). -1
(c). >1
(d). 1

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 QUIZ

4. When Z0>ZLSWR is given by

(A). Z0/ZL
(B). ZL/Z0
(c). Zs/Z0
(d). Z0/Zs

9EC304.75 49
 Quiz

5) Velocity of propagation in a co axial cable with solid

polyethylene as dielectric is
(a) 66 % of C
(b) 78% of C
(c) 95% of C
(d) none of these.

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 Quiz

6.Reflection co efficient is a
a) Real number
b) Complex number
c) Decimal number
d) binary number

Ans. complex number

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 Quiz

7.Reflection coefficient is the ratio of

a) (ZL-_Zo )/(Zo + ZL).
b) (ZL+Zo )/(Zo - ZL).
c) (Zi-_Zo )/(Zo + Zi).
d) (Zi+Zo )/(Zo - Zi).

Ans. (a)

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Frequently asked questions:

1. Define velocity factor and velocity of

propagation.

2. Derive the expression for Reflection coefficient

in terms of ZL and Zo.
3. Define reflection and Reflection coefficient.
4. Define SWR.
5. Explain the formation of standing wave on OC
and SC lines?
6. Derive the relation ship between reflection
coefficient and SWR.
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Frequently asked questions

9EC304.75 54