Network

NETWORK/COMMUNICATION
PROTOCOLS
• A protocol is simply an agreed-on set of rules and
procedures for transmitting data between two or
more devices.
• Features determined by the protocol are:
– How the sending device indicates it has finished sending
the message.
– How the receiving device indicates it has received the
message.
– The type of error checking to be used.
 NETWORK/COMMUNICATIONS
PROTOCOLS
• Most networks use Ethernet, but some
network may use IBM’s Token Ring protocol.
• On the Internet, the major protocol is TCP/IP
(an acronym for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol).
EXAMPLE OF AN ETHERNET BUS
• Ethernet LANs use a bus
topology.
• All stations are connected
to a single long cable.
• Any station can send a
signal along the cable,
which all other stations
will receive. Unlike ring
topologies, the cable
doesn't close a loop.
TOKEN RING NETWORK
• A token passing ring LAN is a
group of computers connected
in a loop. The group uses a
token passing access
mechanism.
• A computer wishing to send data
should first receive
permission. When it gets
control of the network it may
transmit a frame. Each frame
transmitted on the ring is
transmitted from one computer
to the next, until it ultimately
returns to the initiator of the
transmission.
 ISO/OSI Reference Model

File Transfer, Email, Remote Login 

ASCII Text, Sound (syntax layer) 

Establish/manage connection 
End-to-end control & error checking
(ensure complete data transfer): TCP 

Routing and Forwarding Address: IP 

Two party communication: Ethernet 

How to transmit signal; coding
Hardware means of sending and 
receiving data on a carrier
 What is TCP/IP?
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – uses a set of rules
to exchange messages with other Internet points at the
information packet level
• Internet Protocol (IP) – uses a set of rules to send and
receive messages at the Internet address level
• Is the predominate network protocol in use today (Other
includes OSI Model) for interoperable architecture and
the internet.
• TCP/IP is a result of protocol research and development
conducted on experimental packet switched network by
ARPANET funded by the defense advanced research
projects agency (DARPA). TCP/IP used as internet
standards by the internet architecture board (IAB).
 TCP/IP Five Independent Levels
• Application Layer: contains the logic needed to
support the various user applications. Separate
module are required for each application.
• Host-to-host or transport Layer: collection of
mechanisms in a single and common layer
• Internet Layer: IP provides the routing functions
across the multiple networks
• Network access layer: concerned with access to
and routing data across a network for two end
systems attached to the same network.
• Physical Layer: covers physical interface between
PC or workstation and a transmission medium or
network
INTERNET PROTOCOLS
 IP

• Connectionless protocol (I.e. no established

connection between the end points that are
communicating.)
• Responsible for delivery the independently
treated packet !!!!
• TCP responsible for reassembly.
Setting the IP Address
• In a (TCP/IP)-based LAN, PCs use
an IP address to identify each
other.
• These addresses allow
computers that are attached to
the network to locate each
other.
• IP addresses for hosts on a LAN
can be assigned in two ways:

1. Manually assigned by the

network administrator
2. Assigned by a Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server
 COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA
• Communications Channel

– To transfer data from one computer to another

requires some type of link through which the
data can be transmitted. This link is known as
the communications channel.
– To send data through the channel requires some
type of transmission media, which may be either
physical or wireless.
 DATA COMMUNICATION
 The exchange of data between two devices via
some form of wired or wireless transmission
medium
 It includes:
Transfer Of Data
 The Method Of Transfer
The Preservation Of Data During Transfer
Process.
 DATA TRANSMISSION MODE
 The direction of signal flow between two linked
devices.
 Three types of transmission mode-:
 Simplex-unidirectional flow. Eg: television
 Half-Duplex-each communicating device can
send and receive information but not at the
same time. Eg: walky-talky.
Full-Duplex-each device can communicate
simultaneously. Eg: telephone.
Simplex Transmission
• Simplex transmission is a
single one-way baseband
transmission.
• It is also called
unidirectional because the
signal travels in only one
direction.
• An example of simplex
transmission is the signal
sent from the cable TV
station to the home
television.
Half-Duplex Transmission
• This means that only
one side can transmit at
a time.
• Two-way radios, such as
Citizens Band (CB) and
police/emergency
communications mobile
radios, work with half-
duplex transmissions.
Full-Duplex Transmission
• Traffic can travel in both
directions at the same time.
• A regular telephone
conversation is an example of
full-duplex communication.
Both parties can talk at the
same time, and the person
talking on the other end can
still be heard by the other
party while they are talking.
 DATA TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
• Bandwidth (rate of transmission)
• Analog or Digital (type of signal)
– Analog transmission – takes the form of continuous
waves transmitted over a medium at a certain frequency
rage
– Digital transmission – sends data in the form of bits
• Serial or Parallel (order of bits)
– Serial transmission – all of the data bits are transmitted
one bit after another in a continuous line
– Parallel transmission – data bits are sent at the same
time along multiple paths
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 The Physical Medium Through Which Data And
Information Are Transmitted
 Done Through Electromagnetic (Combination Of
Electric And Magnetic Fields) Signals .These Can
Travel Through Vacuum, Air Or Any Other
Transmission Medium.
 Transmission Media Can Be Divided Into Two Broad
Categories:
 Guided Media
Unguided Media
 GUIDED /PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION
MEDIA
 Use A Cabling System That Guide The Data Signals
Along The Specific Path.
 There Are Four Basic Types Of Guided Media:
 Open Wire
 Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
 Optical Fiber
 1.OPEN WIRE
 Traditionally Used to Describe the
Electrical Wire system Or Power
Transmission Wires Strung along
Power Poles.
 No Shielding Is Used For Noise
And Interference
Advantages
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages
 Prone to noise & interference
 suffers from loss of energy
problem/data
 easily tapped
 limited coverage-not
recommended for long data
transmission distances
 2.TWISTED-PAIR
 This kind of cabling wire
are twisted together which
are surrounded by an
insulating material and an
outer layer called jacket.
 Each pair consists of a wire
one for receiving data
signal and another for
transmitting data signal.
 Available in two forms:-
 Unshielded twisted
pairs
 Shielded twisted pairs
 2.1UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
 Two metal conductors that
are insulated separately with
their own colored plastic
insulation.
 Have maximum transmission
speed of up to 9600bps.
 Is the most common type of
telecommunication medium
 Most suited for both data
and voice transmission
 2.2 SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
 STP Cable has a metal
foil or braided mess
covering that covers
each pair of insulated
conductors.
 The metal foil is used
to prevent infiltration
of electromagnetic
noise
 ADVANTAGES OF TWISTED-PAIR

 It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string

between walls.
 Because UTP is small, it does not quickly fill up wiring
ducts.
 Twisted to reduce noise (unwanted signals) and
interference from external sources
 Reduces crosstalk and electromagnetic induction.
 UTP costs less per foot than any other type of LAN
cable.
 DISADVANTAGES OF TWISTED
 Twisted Pair’s Susceptibility To The Electromagnetic
Interference Greatly Depends On The Pair Twisting
Schemes (Usually Patented By The Manufacturers)
Staying Intact During The Installation
 Can be used in short distance communication (less
than 100m)
 3.COAXIAL CABLES
 Has a single central
conductor made up of
solid wire.
 This conductor is
surrounded by an
insulator over which a
sleeve of metal mesh is
there.
 This metal mesh is
again shielded by an
outside covering of a
thick material known
as jacket.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
COAXIAL CABLE

 Advantages:
It is robust(strong and healthy)
High speed up to 10 Mbps
 Disadvantages
It Is More Expensive Than Twisted Pair Cable.
Became Less Popular When Twisted Pair
Technology Improved.
 4.OPTICAL FIBER
 Transfers information in
the form of visible light.
 Consists of thin glass
fibers.
 The typical optical fiber
consists of very narrow
strand of glass called the
core.
 Around the core is a
concentric layer of glass
called the cladding.
 A typical core diameter is
62.5 microns. Cladding has
a diameter of 125
microns.
 The cladding is covered by
protective coating of
plastic known as jacket.
 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER
 It is immune to noise interference, as the
transmission is light based rather than electricity
 Transmission distance is greater as due to less of
signal attenuation
 More secure type as cable cannot be tapped
 Free of corrosion
 Smaller and lighter than copper wire
 Faster transmission rate
 DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER
 Very expensive and costly to produce maintain and
install.
 More fragile as fiber optics tends to break easily as
compared to copper wires.
 PHYSICAL MEDIA
• ISDN line – a special digital telephone line
that transmits and receives information at
very high speeds
• PRI
• BRI
 UNGUIDED/WIRELESS MEDIA
 Communication not bound to a fixed channel.
 Data signals that flow through Air.
 E.g. Radio frequency propagation.
 Satellite is an unguided communication media.
Wireless Media
• If the cost of running cables
is too high or computers
need to be movable without
being tethered to cables,
wireless is an alternative
method of connecting a LAN.
• Wireless networks use
radio frequency (RF)
laser
infrared (IR),
satellite/microwaves
to carry signals from one
computer to another without
a permanent cable
connection.
RADIO FREQUENCY PROPAGATION

 Signals carried over Carrier Waves.

 Have Frequency in Radio Frequency Spectrum.
 Classification :
• Ground Wave
• Ionospheric
• Line of Sight
 GROUND WAVE
 Follows earth’s curvature
 Carrier Frequency - 2Mhz
 E.g. AM Radio
 IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
 Wave bounces off Earth’s Ionosphere layer.
 Frequency Range – 30 to 85 Mhz
 E.g. Ham radio.
EXAMPLE OF IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

HAM RADIO TOWER

HAM RADIO
 LINE OF SIGHT
 Transmit exactly in Line of Sight.
 Also called as Space waves.
 Limited by Earth’s Curvature for grounded
Stations.
 E.g. FM radio, Microwave and Satellite.
 MICROWAVE
 Uses Sight Transmission.
 Transmitting and receiving stations be visible.
 Repeaters used to skip or jump the data.
 SATELLITES
 Satellites are Transponders.
 Geo Stationary Satellites used.
 Communication done through Uplinks and
Downlinks.
UPLINK

Downlink and Foot print

 Networking Hardware's
• NIC – Network Interface Card
• Hub – electronic device (with a number of ports) used in a
LAN to link groups of computer
• Repeaters (also called amplifiers) – electronic devices
that receive signals and amplify and send them along the
network
• Routers - electronic devices used to ensure messages are
sent to their intended destinations
• Gateway – consists of hardware and/or software that
allows communications between dissimilar networks
• Bridge – consists of hardware and/or software
that allows communication between two
similar networks
What is a NIC?
• A network interface card
(NIC) is a device that
plugs into a motherboard
and provides ports for
the network cable
connections.
• It is the computer
interface with the LAN.
• The NIC communicates
with the network
through serial
connections and
communicates with the
computer through
parallel connections.
HUB
• A hub is a device that is used
to extend an Ethernet wire to
allow more devices to
communicate with each other.
• Hubs are most commonly used
in Ethernet 10BASE-T or
100BASE-T networks, although
there are other network
architectures that use them.
 HUBS

The original Ethernet LANs relied on certain physical

characteristics of the cable carrying the network data (usually
coaxial cable). New Ethernet technologies introduced new
cable types that we unable to fulfill the original physical
requirements. New devices - hubs - were introduced to
simulate those characteristics.
Simply put, the hub's major function is to replicate data it
receives from one device attached to it to all others.
Bridges
• Bridges connect network segments.
• The basic functionality of the
bridge resides in its ability to make
intelligent decisions about whether
to pass signals on to the next
segment of a network.
• A switch is a more sophisticated
device than a bridge, although the
basic function of the switch is
deceptively simple.
• Ethernet switches are becoming
popular connectivity solutions
because they increase network
performance.
Routers
• Routers are slower than
bridges and switches, but
make “smart” decisions on
how to route (or send)
packets received on one port
to a network on another
port.
• Routers contain tables of
network addresses along
with optimal destination
routes to other networks.
 ROUTERS

• Routers connect two or more networks and forward data

packets between them. When data arrives from one of the
segments, the router decides, according to it's routing table,
to which segment to forward that data.
 REPEATERS
A common problem in the networking world is that of weakening electrical
signals. Electrical signals traveling through wires (such as copper wires used
in most networks), weaken due to the wire's electrical resistance. This effect
limits the lengths of the cable that can be used. A repeater will overcome
this limit, when there is a need to connect two computers at a larger
distance.
A repeater is connected to two cable segments. Any electrical signal reaching
the repeater from one segment, will be amplified and retransmitted to the
other segment.

An illustration of a repeater at work

The electrical signal entering the repeater at one end is weakened.
The repeater amplifies the electrical signals and resends the data.
 GATEWAY

• "Gateway" is a term that was once used to refer to a routing device. Today,
in the TCP/IP world, the term "router" is used to describe such a device.

The term gateway now refers to special-purpose devices, that perform

protocol conversions. Gateways implement application layer conversions of
information received from various protocols.

• Examples of gateways found on today's markets are:

– VocalTec Gateway: A gateway that converts human speech traveling on analog
phone lines into local area network protocol data, and visa-versa.
– RadVision Gateway: Converts video from digital phone lines into local area
network protocol data, and visa-versa.
 MODEMS

An illustration of data sent using a modem and a regular telephone

line.

A modem is a device that converts digital data originating from a

terminal or computer, to analog signals used by voice communication
networks such as the telephone system. At one end, modems convert
the digital pulses to audible tones and convert audio tones back to
digital pulses at the other.
The word "Modem" stands for "MOdulator-DEModulator".
 EXAMPLE OF FIREWALL

• Firewalls are systems that establish access control policies

among networks. They can block information from entering a
network or from getting out of that network, they can permit
different users to perform different kinds of operations,
according to the user's authorizations.
 COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE

• E-Mail Software – used to send and receive

electronic messages using the Internet
• Web Browser – allows users to access and view
Web pages
• Groupware – allows groups of people on a
network to share information and to collaborate
on various projects