Unit 1

Physical Layer
 Data Communications
System
• Transmitter – transmit data to another medium.
• Receiver – receive data from a transmitter.
• Medium of transfer – the medium for transfer of data.
Data Communications
System
Medium

Transmitter Receiver
Letter by post Post Office

Sender Recipient

TV programme
Microwave
TV transmission Antenna
station
Communications Model

Source System Destination System

Transmission
Source Transmitter system
Receiver Destination

Workstation Modem Public Telephone Modem Server

Network
Data Communication Components
• Data
• Analog: Continuous value data (sound, light, temperature)
• Digital: Discrete value (text, integers, symbols)
• Signal
• Analog: Continuously varying electromagnetic wave
• Digital: Series of voltage pulses (square wave)
• Transmission
• Analog: Works the same for analog or digital signals
• Digital: Used only with digital signals

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 Signal
• Analog Signal 
• signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time. In other words, there are 
no breaks or discontinuities in the signal
 Signal
• Digital Signal 
• signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then 
changes to another constant level
Data
• Analog Data
• For example, telephones take sound vibrations and turn them into electrical
vibrations of the same shape before they are transmitted over traditional
telephone lines. Radio wave transmissions work in the same way. Computers,
which handle data in digital form, require modems to turn signals from digital to
analog before transmitting those signals over communication lines such as
telephone lines that carry only analog signals. The signals are turned back into
digital form (demodulated) at the receiving end so that the computer can process
the data in its digital format.
Data
• Digital Data
• This is the principle behind compact discs (CDs). The music itself exists in an
analog form, as waves in the air, but these sounds are then translated into a
digital form that is encoded onto the disk. When you play a compact disc, the CD
player reads the digital data, translates it back into its original analog form, and
sends it to the amplifier and eventually the speakers.
• Internally, computers are digital because they consist of discrete units called bits
that are either on or off. But by combining many bits in complex ways, computers
simulate analog events. In one sense, this is what computer science is all about.
Analog DataSignal Options
• Analog data to analog signal
• Inexpensive, easy conversion (e.g., telephone)
• Data may be shifted to a different part of the available spectrum
(multiplexing)
• Used in traditional analog telephony
• Analog data to digital signal
• Requires a codec (encoder/decoder)
• Allows use of digital telephony, voice mail

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Digital DataSignal Options
• Digital data to analog signal
• Requires modem (modulator/demodulator)
• Allows use of PSTN to send data
• Necessary when analog transmission is used
• Digital data to digital signal
• Requires CSU/DSU (channel service unit/data service unit)
• Less expensive when large amounts of data are involved
• More reliable because no conversion is involved

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Analog and Digital Signaling

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Transmission Choices
• Analog transmission
• only transmits analog signals, without regard for data content
• attenuation overcome with amplifiers
• signal is not evaluated or regenerated
• Digital transmission
• transmits analog or digital signals
• uses repeaters rather than amplifiers
• switching equipment evaluates and regenerates signal

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Analog and Digital
Data and Signals
Analog Digital
Signal Signal
Analog Data Two alternatives:
(1) signal occupies the same
spectrum as the analog data
Analog data are encoded
using a codec to produce a
digital bit stream.
(2) Analog data are encoded
to occupy a different
spectrum.

Digital Data Digital data are encoded

using a modem to produce
analog signal.
Two alternatives:
(1) signal consists of two
voltage levels to represent
two binary values
(2) digital data are encoded
to produce a digital signal
with desired properties.

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Analog and Digital
Treatment of Signals
Analog Digital
Transmission Transmission
Analog Signal Is propagated through
amplifiers; same treatment
whether signal is used to
Assumes that the analog signal
represents digital data. Signal is
propagated through repeaters;
represent analog data or digital at each repeater, digital data are
data. recovered from inbound signal
and used to generate a new
analog outbound signal.

Digital Signal Not used. Digital signal represents a

stream of 1s and 0s which may
represent digital data or may be
an encoding of analog data.
Signal is propagated though
repeaters; at each repeater,
stream of 1s and 0s is recovered
from inbound signal and used to
generate a new digital outbound
signal.
Channel Characteristics
• NOISE AND DISTORTION
• Noise is unwanted electrical signals that are introduced by circuit
components or natural disturbances.
• Distortion is an unwanted change in signal wave form as it travels
through the system.
• Both noise and distortion can cause communication errors. These
errors result in extra bits, missing bits, or bits whose states have been
changed.
• Crosstalk is unwanted coupling between signal paths.
Channel Characteristics
• NOISE AND DISTORTION
• Noise is measured in terms of signal to noise ratio S/N or SNR with
decibles (dB) as unit.
• Low ratio implies that it is not worth paying attention to.
• It is measured as
• X
Channel Characteristics
• Bandwidth
• The channel bandwidth is considered as the size of the range of
frequencies that can be transmitted through a channel and is
measured in Hertz(Hz)
• Bandwidth is measures in data speed in bits per second(bps) in digital
system
• Bandwidth is measures as the difference between highest and lowest
frequencies in analog systems.
Channel Characteristics
• Different Bandwidth
• Narrowband (0-300Hz) channels - used for non-voice service; e.g.,
teletype writer + other low speed data transmission.
• Voiceband (300-3400Hz) channels - used for voice transmission,
foreign exchange service and data communications.
• Wideband or Broadband - used for high speed data facsimile and
video transmission.
Channel Characteristics
• Channel Capacity
• The information-carrying capacity of a communications channel per
unit time is channel capacity measured in bits per second
• It is directly proportional to its bandwidth.
• For example, a random stream of bits going across the voice
bandwidth has a maximum capacity of 33,600 bits per second
(approx). This is demonstrated by using Shannon's Law.
• Using Shannon’s Law Signal to Noise Ratio: 38,000-39,000 db (best
case)
Channel Characteristics
• Spectrum
• The range of frequencies available for use in a chaneel
• Measured in Hertz(Hz)
Channel Characteristics
• SPECTRUM vs. BANDWIDTH vs. CHANNEL CAPACITY
• Spectrum = 300-3400 Hz (range of frequencies available for use).
• Bandwidth = 3100 Hz (difference between highest and lowest
frequencies).
• Channel Capacity = 33,600 bps (maximum transmission rate)*
Channel Characteristics
• Data Transmission Rate(Bit Rate)
• Maximum number of bits that can be transmitted per unit time
through the physical medium.
• It is measured in bits per second(bps)
• Maximum data rate for noise less channel=2H log2 W/second ,
where W is the number of discrete level in signal.(Nyquist)
• Maximum data rate for noisy less = H log2 (1+S/N) (Shanon)
Channel Characteristics
• Transmission Time
• Time required for transmitting a message through a channel.
• It is measured as size of the message in bits divided by the data rate in
bits per second(bps).
• Propagation Time(Channel Latency)
• The time required for information propagate through source to
destination through the channel.
• It is measured as distance divided by the signal propagation speed
Channel Characteristics
• Throughput
• Number of bits passing through a data communication system over a
period of time.
• Mathematically
• Throughput=
Channel Characteristics
• Channel Utilization
• It the fraction of the data rate actually used to transmit data.
• Mathematically
• Channel Utilization =
• a is the ratio of propagation time and transmission time known as bit length.
Channel Characteristics
• Attenuation
• Attenuation is the weakening, in strength, of a signal as it passes
through the medium.
• As the signal travels through the transmission medium, some of its
power is absorbed, the signal gets weaker, and the receiving
equipment has less and less chance of correctly interpreting the data.
• It referred to loss of signal power measured in decibels(dB).