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 A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some

type of input from the physical environment. The
specific input could be:
 light
 heat
 motion
 moisture
 pressure or any one of a great number of other
environmental phenomena.
 The output is generally a signal that is converted to
human-readable display at the sensor location or
transmitted electronically over a network for reading or
further processing.
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 Criteria to choose a Sensor
 There are certain features which have to be considered
when we choose a sensor. They are as given below:

 Accuracy
 Environmental condition - usually has limits for
temperature/ humidity
 Range - Measurement limit of sensor
 Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices
as the readings changes with time
 Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor
 Cost
 Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly
measured under the same environment

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 Classification of Sensors the sensors are classified into the
following criteria:

1. Primary Input quantity (measurand)

2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)
3.Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application

Classification based on property

 Temperature
 Light
 Pressure
 Accelerometer
 Color
 Humidity

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 is a device, typically, a thermocouple or RTD, that
provides for temperature measurement through an
electrical signal.

 is the instrumentation equipment which is used to measure

temperature or heat on the operating machine part.

 There are two kinds on temperature sensors:

1. contact sensors

2. noncontact sensors.

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 Contact temperature sensors measure the temperature of the
object to which the sensor is in contact by assuming or
knowing that the two (sensor and the object) are in thermal
equilibrium in other words, there is no heat flow between
them.

Noncontact Sensors
 Most commercial and scientific noncontact temperature sensors
measure the thermal radiant power of the
Infrared or Optical radiation received from a known or calculated
area on its surface or volume within it.
An example of noncontact temperature sensors is a pyrometer

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 Thermocouples
 Resistance temperature devices (RTD)
 Thermistors
 Infrared sensors

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• Mostly widely used in
industry Measuring Junction
• Range: sub-zero to
4000oF(2000oC) A
+
• Formed by joining two
different metal alloy wires
(A,B) at point called
B
- Display
Device
junction
Reference
• Junction called the
Junction
measuring or “hot”
junction
• Lead ends attached to
temp indicator or
controller
• Connection point called
reference or “cold”
junction
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 Measuring junction is heated, small DC voltage
(millivolts) generated in thermocouple wires
 Thermocouple converts thermal energy into
electrical energy
 Note: thermocouple only generates a millivoltage
signal when there is temperature difference
between “hot” and “cold” junctions
 “cold” junction usually set to 32oF(0oC)

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 Precision Temperature Sensors
 More accurate than thermocouple elements
 Maintain accuracy over longer period of time
 Range up to 1200oF (650oC)

 Styles
 Wire-Wound
 Thin film
 Kapton Insulated

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• RTD’s resistance increase as temp increase.
– Controller measures resistance value and converts to temp.
reading, fairly linear relationship.
– Unlike thermocouple, no electrical signal generated
– Controller measures resistance by passing current through
RTD
– Use a base resistance value (ex: for Platinum, value of 100
ohms at 0oC (32oF)

RTD Resistance Vs. Temp. (TCR) Curve

Resistance
(Ohms) TCR = Temperature coefficient of resistance

Temperature (oC) 11
 Advantages of RTDs
 Stability
 Repeatability
 Accuracy

 Disadvantages of RTDs
 Cost: more expensive
 Temp. Range limited
 Response Time slower
 Heat must transfer through epoxy or glass coating
 Entire RTD element must reach uniform temp. before
accurate measurement taken.

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• Semiconductor used as temperature sensor
• Made from mixture of metal oxides pressed to bead or wafer
form
• Bead heated under pressure at high temp & encapsulated with
glass/epoxy
• RESULT: Distinct non-linear resistance vs. temp. relationship

Non-linear decrease in resistance

Resistance as temperature increases.
(Ohms)

Temperature (oC) 13
 • Intercepts portion of infrared energy radiated by object
• Waves focused through lens on infrared detector, converting
to an electric output signal

Heat Source Non-Contact Temp. Sensor

Temp. Indicator
Optics

Infrared Detector

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 LIGHT SENSOR

 Light sensor is a passive devices that convert this

“light energy” whether visible or in the infra-red parts of the
spectrum into an electrical signal output.

 Light sensors are more commonly known as

“Photoelectric Devices” or “Photo Sensors”
because the convert light energy (photons) into
electricity (electrons).

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 Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main
categories, those which generate electricity when
illuminated, such as
 Photo-voltaics or
 Photo-emissive etc. and those which change their electrical
properties in some way such as Photo-resistors or Photo-
conductors. This leads to the following classification of
devices.

 Photo-emissive Cells – These are photodevices which

release free electrons from a light sensitive material such as
caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy. The
amount of energy the photons have depends on the frequency
of the light and the higher the frequency, the more energy the
photons have converting light energy into electrical energy.

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 Photo-conductive Cells – These photodevices vary their
electrical resistance when subjected to light. Photoconductivity
results from light hitting a semiconductor material which
controls the current flow through it. Thus, more light increase
the current for a given applied voltage. The most common
photoconductive material is Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR
photocells.

 Photo-voltaic Cells – These photodevices generate an emf in

proportion to the radiant light energy received and is similar in
effect to photoconductivity. Light energy falls on to two
semiconductor materials sandwiched together creating a voltage
of approximately 0.5V. The most common photovoltaic material
is Selenium used in solar cells.

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 Photo-junction Devices – These photodevices
are mainly true semiconductor devices such as the
photodiode or phototransistor which use light to
control the flow of electrons and holes across their
PN-junction.

 Photo junction devices are specifically designed for

detector application and light penetration with their
spectral response tuned to the wavelength of incident
light.

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