C

SUBMITTED BY:- E SUBMITTED TO:-

SHIVAM CHANDRA PATERIYA MR.JITESH MOTWANI
(OURA12103038)
BRANCH:-E.C.
 Transistors
• They are unidirectional current carrying
devices like diodes with capability to control
the current flowing through them
• Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) control
current by current
• Field Effect Transistors (FET) control current
by voltage
• They can be used either as switches or as
amplifiers
 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
• Two back to back P-N junctions
• Emitter
– Heavily doped
– Main function is to supply majority carriers to base
• Base
– Lightly doped as compared to emitter
– Thickness 10-6 m
• Collector
– Collect majority carriers from emitter through base
– Physically larger than the emitter region

N P N P N P
E C E C

B B
 The BJT – Bipolar Junction Transistor

The Two Types of BJT Transistors

npn pnp

E n p n C E p n p C

Cross Section C Cross Section C

B B
B B
Schematic Schematic
Symbol Symbol
E E
NPN Bipolar Junction
Transistor

LP4 5
PNP Bipolar Junction
Transistor

LP4 6
 STRUCTURE
• The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it
almost impossible for the electrons injected into the
base region to escape being collected, thus making the
resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving
the transistor a large β
• Energy Band diagram of an unbiased transistor
– N-region moves down and P-region moves up due to
diffusion of majority carriers across junction.
– The displacement of band and carrier migration
stops when Fermi levels in the three regions are
equalized
Biasing of Transistor
– Base and emitter current when collector is open
• EB is forward biased- electron diffusion from
emitter to base and hole diffusion from base to
emitter
• Hence IB will be large and is equal to IE
• Collector is open so no current flows into collector
• Base and Collector current when the Emitter
is open (ICBO)
• CB is reverse biased- electron from base flow into
collector region and holes from collector flow
into base
• This current is known as reverse saturation
current
• The base current IB will be small and is equal to
ICBO
• Four Ways of Transistor biasing
– Both EB and CB junctions are fwd biased- Huge
current flows through base. The transistor is said to
be operating in Saturation region (mode)
– Both EB and CB junctions are reverse biased- The
transistor is said to be operating in cut off region
(mode)
– EB junction is fwd biased and CB junction is reverse
biased. The collector current is controlled by emitter
current or base current- The transistor is said to
operate in Active region (mode)
– EB junction in reverse biased and CB junction in fwd
biased- inverted region (mode)
 Transistor Biasing-Active Region
When both Emitter and Collector are closed
• Emitter-base junction is forward biased
• Collector-base junction is reverse biased
• DC emitter supply voltage (VEE)- Negative terminal of
VEE is connected to emitter
• DC collector supply voltage (VCC)- Positive terminal of
VCC is connected to collector
• IB becomes very small and IC will be as large as IE

IE IC
N P N

VEE IB VCC
 Transistor currents
• Forward biasing from base to emitter narrows the BE
depletion region
• Reverse biasing from base to collector widens the
depletion CB region
• Conduction electrons diffuse into p-type base region
• Base is lightly doped and also very thin- so very few
electron combine with available hole and flow out of the
base as valence electrons (small base electron current)

IE IC
N P N

VEE IB VCC
• Sufficient holes are not avail in base – remote possibility
of joining of electrons with holes
• Electron concentration is large on emitter side and nil
on collector
• Electrons swiftly move towards collector
• At CB junction they are acted upon by strong electric
field due to reverse bias and are swept into collector
 Important Biasing Rule
• Both collector and base are positive with respect to
emitter
• But collector is more positive than base
• Different potentials have been designated by double
subscripts as shown in the figure
• VCB (Collector is more positive than base) and VBE (base
is more positive than emitter)
++ C
E - ++ C
VCB

+
B +
VBE VCB
VBE
B
-E
 Transistor circuit configuration
• There are of three types
– Common base (CB) OR grounded base
– Common emitter (CE) OR grounded emitter
– Common collector (CC) OR grounded collector
• Common is the term used to denote the electrode that is
common to the input and output circuits and it is
generally grounded
• Common-Base Biasing (CB) : input = VBE & IE
• output = VCB & IC

• Common-Emitter Biasing (CE): input = VBE & IB

• output = VCE & IC

• Common-Collector Biasing (CC): input = VBC & IB

• output = VEC & IE
Common Base Configuration
• Input signal applied between emitter & base
• Output is taken from collector & base
• Ratio of collector current to emitter current
is called dc alpha (dc) of a transistor

E - ++ C

+
VBE VCB

B
 IC
 dc 
IE
OR
I C   dc I E
• The subscript dc on  signifies that this ratio is defined
from dc values of IC and IE
• There is also an ac  which refers to the ratio of change
in collector current to the change in emitter current
• For all practical purposes dc= ac= 
• IE is taken as positive (flowing into transistor) and IC is
taken as negative (flowing out of transistor)
•  is the measure of quality of a transistor- higher its
values, better is the transistor
• Value ranges from 0.95 to 0.999
 Common Emitter Configuration
• The input signal is applied between the base and
emitter and the output signal is taken out from the
collector and the emitter
• Ratio of collector current to base current is called dc
beta (dc) of a transistor IC

IB
OR
I C  I B C
Relation between  and  -
B +
IC IC
 and  
IE IB

E
  IE

 IB
using I B I E I C then   I C becomes
IB
IC IC / I E 
 or   
I E  IC I E / I E  IC / I E 1  
 1      or    1    or    /1   
Common Collector Configuration
• The input signal is applied between the base and
collector and the output signal is taken out from the
emitter-collector circuit
• Ratio of emitter current to base current is
I E I E IC  
 .    1   
I B I C I B   / 1   
From the figure
C
I E I B I C I B I B 1   I B

-
B +
Output current=(1+) x Input current

Relation between transistor currents

E
I E:I B:I C
We know
I C  I B  I E
and
I E  / 1   I E
 1   I E
IC IE
IB    
   1 
because
  We get 1   
1
 and  
1    1 1   
Therefore
I E: (1   ) I E: I E
1 : (1   ) : 
• This shows that emitter current initiated by the
forward biased emitter base junction is split
into two parts
• (1-)IE which becomes base current in the
external circuit
• IE which becomes collector current in the
external circuit
 Static Characteristics
• Common Base Static characteristics
–Input characteristics. IE varies with VBE
when voltage VCB is held constant
• VCB is adjusted with the help of R1
• VBE is increased and corresponding values of IE are
noted
• The plot gives input characteristics
• Similar to the forward characteristics of P-N diode
• This characteristics is used to find the input
resistance of the transistor. Its value is given by the
reciprocal of its slope
Rin= VBE /  IE
 BJT Input Characteristics

IE E C IC

VEE

+
VCC
R2 VCB R1
VBE

IE
8
mA
6
mA
4
mA
2
mA

0.7 V VBE
 Static Characteristics
• Common Base Static characteristics
– Output characteristics. IC varies with VCB when IE is held
constant
• VBE is adjusted with the help of R2 and IE is held constant
• VCB is increased and corresponding values of IC are noted
• The plot gives output characteristics
• Then IE is increased to a value little higher and whole process is
repeated
• The output resistance of the transistor is given by
Rout= VCB /  IC
IE E C IC

VEE
+

VCC
R2 VCB R1
VBE

B
 BJT Output Characteristics
 IC flows even when VCB=0 for different values of
IE(due to internal junction voltage at CB junction)
 IC flows even when IE=0 (Collector leakage current or
reverse saturation current ICBO)
The output resistance is very high (500k)
IC

Active
Saturation Region

Region
IE

Cutoff
IE = 0
VCB
 Static Characteristics
– It can be seen that IC flows even when VCB is zero
– It is due to the fact that electrons are being injected
into base due to forward biased E-B junction and are
collected by collector due to action of internal junction
voltage at C-B junction
– Another important feature is that a small amount of
collector current flows even when the emitter current IE
is zero called collector leakage current (ICBO)
– When VCB is permitted to increase beyond a certain
value, IC increases rapidly due to avalanche breakdown
• This characteristics may be used to find ac

ac =IC/ IE

 Common Emitter Configuration
• Transistor is biased in active region
• Called CE because emitter is common to both VBB and VCC
• VBB forward biases the EB junction and VCC reverse biases the CB

C IC
IB B

VBB E VCC
R2 VCE R1
VBE

Common Emitter(CE) Connection

LP4 27
 Static Characteristics
• Common Emitter Static
characteristics
– Input characteristics. IB varies with VBE when
voltage VCE is held constant
• VCE is adjusted with the help of R1
• VBE is increased and corresponding values of IB are noted
• The plot gives input characteristics
• Procedure is repeated for different (constant) values of VCE
• This characteristics is used to find the input resistance of the
transistor. Its value is given by the reciprocal of its slope
Rin= VBE /  IB
IB

8 mA

6 mA

4 mA

2 mA

0.7 V
VBE
 Static Characteristics
• Common Emitter Static characteristics
– Output characteristics. IC varies with VCE
when IB is held constant
• IB is held constant
• VCE is increased and corresponding values of IC are
noted
• The plot gives output characteristics
• Then IB is increased to a value little higher and
whole process is repeated
• The output resistance in this case is very less as
compared to CB circuit and is given by
Rout= VCE /  IC
  As VCE increases from zero, IC rapidly increases to saturation level for a fixed
value of IB
 IC flows even when IB=0 (Collector leakage current or reverse saturation
current ICEO), the transistor is said to be cutoff
When VCB is permitted to increase beyond a certain value, IC increases rapidly
due to avalanche breakdown

 This characteristics may be used to find ac ac =IC/ IB

IC
Region of Description
Operation
Active
Active Small base current Region
controls a large
collector current
IB
Saturation VCE(sat) ~ 0.2V, VCE
increases with IC

Cutoff Achieved by reducing VCE

IB to 0, Ideally, IC will
Saturation Region
also equal 0.
Cutoff Region
I =0
 DC  and DC 
 = Common-emitter current gain
 = Common-base current gain
 = IC  = IC
IB IE

The relationships between the two parameters are:

=  = 
+1 1-

Note:  and  are sometimes referred to as dc and dc

because the relationships being dealt with in the BJT
are DC.
 Transistor as an amplifier
• An electronic circuit that causes an increase in the
voltage or power level of a signal
• It is defined as the ratio of the output signal voltage to
the input signal voltage
OutputVoltage vo
G 
InputVoltage vi

IE IC

VEE IB VCC RL
 In the figure we see that an output voltage is developed
across RL
 The dc voltage VEE is a fixed voltage and causes a dc
current IE to flow through EB junction
 When the ac voltage Vi is super-imposed on VEE, the
emitter base voltage varies with time
 Say if VEE =10V and the peak voltage of Vi is is 1V, the
EB voltage swings from 9V to 11V
 The causes corresponding variations in IE and IC which
gives Vo
 The emitter variation due to EB voltage variation can be
expressed as

vi
I E 
ri
 The collector current IC changes by

I C   dc I E
 This current IC flows through RL causing a voltage
drop

vo  I C RL
vo   dc I E RL
vo   dc vi / ri RL
 Hence

G  vo / vi   dc RL / ri  as  dc  1
 Where ri is very small (100 ) and RL is of the order of
kilo-ohms. It means Vo is larger than Vi indicating that
the transistor has amplified small Vi to a larger Vo
REFERENCES:-

WWW.LUCENT.COM
HTTP://TRANSISTORS.GLOBALSPEC.COM
HTTP://WWW.KPSEC.FREEUK.COM
WWW.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM
WWW.ALLABOUTCIRCUITS.COM