Methods of

Research

UM Digos Research and Publication Center

The Outline Proposal

1. The students shall submit the research

outline of approved title written in the
prescribed format.

2. The thesis adviser shall review the

academic soundness, departmental
compatibility and appropriateness of the
research proposal before submission.
3. The thesis instructor shall schedule the
outline defense before a panel of three
faculty members chosen based on their
field of training and interest.

4. The research study shall only be

conducted after approval of the outline by
the defense panel.
The Research Title
 a brief descriptive label (10-15 words)
 names the major variables that are the
subject of investigation
 answers the questions of what, who, and
where
 eye-catching and thought-provoking

Proponents
 list of thesis group members
Chapter 4 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Topics
 Parts of a Research Proposal
The Problem and its Setting
Review of Related Literature
Methodology
Objectives

Discuss the contents and

characteristics of the different parts
of a research proposal.
Submit a research proposal.
3 Parts of a Research Proposal

The Problem and its Setting

Review of Related Literature
Methodology
Components of a Research Proposal
Title Page
Table of Contents
Chapter 1. The Problem and its Setting
Chapter 2. Review of Related Literature
Chapter 3. Methodology
Additional Parts
Title Page

The title page presents the title, the kind of

research work, the faculty to be submitted to;
the name of school; the submission
statement; the degree granted; full name of
the researcher; month and year in which the
degree is to be (or was) granted. The title is
written in all capital letters in an inverted
pyramid style.
 THE EFFECT OF INTERMITTENT HIGH
TEMPERATURE IN IN-SHELL DRYING
OF COCONUTS

A Thesis Proposal

Sample Submitted to
Title Page The Faculty of the Chemical Engineering Department
University of Mindanao

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

BACK Submitted by
Voltaire S. Templa
October 2002
Table of Contents

This is a list of all elements in the

research paper – chapter titles, the main
heading and subheadings in the text,
bibliography and appendix. The
numbering of chapters, wording and
punctuation must be exactly similar as
they appear in the text.
Tables. The list of tables should follow the
table of contents. If there are only two or
three tables in the text of the research
paper, this page may be omitted. All
captions should appear exactly the same
in the listing.
Figures. The list of figures follows the list
of tables. List of Figures is omitted if there
are only two or three figures in the text. All
captions should appear exactly the same
in the listing. Flowcharts, graphs,
paradigms, charts, drawings, maps, and
diagrams are usually grouped as figures.
 CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOLEDGMENTS iii
TABLES vii
FIGURES xi

CHAPTER
Sample 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING 1

Table of Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 4
Contents Theoretical Framework 5
Scope and Limitations of the Study 8
Significance of the Study 9
Definition of Terms 10

2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 12

3 METHODOLOGY 20
Research Design 20
Subjects/Participants 21
Research Instruments 22
Research Procedure 24
Statistical Tools 29
BIBLIOGRAPHY 33
SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES 36
PROPOSED BUDGET 38
 LIST OF TABLES
Page

TABLE

1 Distribution of UM Students by Program 40

2 Distribution of UM Faculty by Program 45
3 Mean Performance Ratings of UM Faculty 52
Sample 4 Mean Values of the Level of Satisfaction
List of of UM Students on Faculty

Tables Performance 60
 LIST OF FIGURES
Page

FIGURE

1 Conceptual Paradigm of the Study 6

2 Flowchart of the Preparation of Cheese
from Coconut Milk 25
Sample 3 Mean Score on the Color Acceptability
List of of Cheese from Coconut Milk 42

Figures 4 Mean Score on the Flavor Acceptability

of Cheese from Coconut Milk 57

BACK
Chapter 1. THE PROBLEM AND
ITS SETTING
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
1.4 Scope and Delimitations of the Study
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Definition of Terms
1.1. Background of the Study
This refers to the overview of the study
discussing the factors that lead to the
conceptualization of the problem. It
should indicate the importance and validity
of the particular problem. It must point out
that the problem has not been fully studied
or that its study would make a useful
contribution.
Guidelines in Writing the Background
of the Study

This section should contain a discussion

of any or all of the following:
 Presentation of the Problem. Tells what the
problem is all about and indicates what will be
covered by the study.
 The existence of a problem. Discusses the
existing unsatisfactory condition that needs a
solution.
 Rationale of the Study. Talks about the reason or
reasons why it is necessary to conduct the study –
to discover or solve something; to find a better way
of doing something or improving a product; to
have a deeper and clearer understanding of a
situation, circumstance, or phenomenon
 Historical Background of the problem. Gives a
bird’s eye view of the backdrop of the problem by
citing published materials relevant to the study.

BACK
1.2. Statement of the Problem
There should be a general statement of
the whole problem followed by specific
questions or sub-problems into which
the general problem is broken up.
The research problem subsumes two
important pieces of information: the
study content and the precise objectives
of the investigation.
 Problem Formulation
A problem well defined is a problem half solved!

Failure to properly identify where you are headed and

why will inevitably lead you to wonder where you are
and how you got there! Wren
 This implies that a researcher cannot
effectively carry out a study unless he has
a purpose and knows what to look for
during the investigation. To define a
problem means to specify it in greater
detail to focus on its main objective. This
focusing provides a clear direction to the
research activity.
 The statement of the problem should
identify, if possible, all the variables, and
what questions about these variables does
the research seek to answer.
Sample Statement Of the Problem

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to investigate the effect of intermittent temperature in in-shell
drying of copra to improve its quality. It specifically aims to answer the following
questions:
1. What is the effect of using different temperatures and different drying durations in
the quality of copra in terms of its
a. moisture content of copra meat ?
b. moisture content of oil?
c. color of copra meat
d. color of oil
e. free fatty acid content of oil

2. Is there a significant difference in the effect of intermittent temperature in relation

to the drying duration of copra in terms of :
a. moisture content of copra meat ?
b. moisture content of oil?
c. color of copra meat
d. color of oil
e. free fatty acid content of oil

3. What is the optimum temperature and drying time to produce the best in-shell dried
copra?
Assumptions and Hypotheses

Historical and descriptive investigations

do not need explicit hypotheses and
assumptions. Only experimental studies
need expressly written assumptions and
hypotheses.
Assumptions are presumed to be true
statements of facts related to the
research problem. They are clearly
stated as a foundation to form
conclusions. It is advisable that
evidences or arguments in support of
these assumptions are presented. Not
all studies have a section on
assumptions because some of these
are already included in the background
of the study.
A hypothesis is a tentative and educated
guess that is formulated and temporarily
adopted to explain or answer specific
questions of the study. It is important for
it tells the researcher what to do and
how to go about solving the problem.
Hypothesis Formats
There is a pattern in the observed phenomena;
There is a relationship between variables, where
a change in one causes a change in another;
There is a cause-and-effect relationship
between the variables;
There is an association between the variables, a
relationship exists between the two variables but
it is not in the sense that one is the cause and
the other is the effect
Types of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (HO) is a denial of an
existence of an attribute, a relationship
or a difference of an effect. It is always
stated in the negative form.

Alternative Hypothesis (HA) is the

opposite extreme of the HO and is
always stated in the positive form. It is
an affirmation of the existence of an
observed phenomenon.
BACK
1.3. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

This component expounds on the theory,

indicator, and variables that led to the
evolvement of the research problem and
its corresponding hypotheses. Its narrative
text is supported by a schematic diagram
that graphically portrays the theories and
concepts involved.
Theoretical Framework is a symbolic
construction which uses abstract concepts,
facts or laws, variables and their relations
that explains and predicts how an observed
phenomenon exists and operates.

Conceptual Framework presents specific

and well-defined concepts called constructs
that are derived from abstract concepts of
the theoretical framework.
This section should provide clear written
explanation regarding the relationships of
the variables being studied. It should also
be illustrated. The research could either
validate an existing theory or attempt to
formulate a new theory that would
contribute to the growth of knowledge.
Comparison between Theoretical and
Conceptual Framework

Level Independent Moderator Dependent

Variable Variable Variable

Theoretical River Qualities Sampling Health of River

conditions

Conceptual Color, odor, Time of Sampling, River classification

temperature, pH, Sampling site
turbidity, DO, BOD
Paradigm is a diagrammatic representation
of a framework. It depicts in a more vivid
way what the framework wants to convey.

RIVER QUALITIES RIVER CLASSIFICATION

Color, odor, temperature, Standard A-Quality

pH, turbidity, DO, BOD Standard B-Quality

SAMPLING CONDITIONS

Time
Location
Models of Presenting Theoretical/
Conceptual Framework

Input Process Product Model (CIPP)

Input Process Output

Inputs-Process/Throughputs-Outputs Model (IPO)

Throughputs
Inputs Process or Outputs
Combined Variables Model (CVM)

Independent Moderator Control

Variables Variables Variables

Intervening Variables

Dependent Variables
Interactinal System Model (ISM)

Input

Transformation Variables

Environmental Variables

Output
Definition of Variable

A variable is a quantity or a characteristic

that has two or more mutually exclusive
values or properties of objects or people
that can be classified, measured or
labeled in different ways.
 General Classification of Variables
1. Discrete – one that can take only a finite
or potentially countable set of values.
Discrete variables should be classified,
categorized and labeled into classes.

2. Continuous –one that can take on an

infinite set of values between any two
levels of the variables. They are the result
of measurement. Continuous variables
should be stated in numerical terms
indicating its degree (level).
Types of Variables
1. Independent Variable
It is a variable which is measured,
manipulated or selected by the
researcher to determine its relationship
to an observed phenomenon; it is the
stimulus variable. This is called the
cause, object and variate of the
investigation. This may be an observed
event, factor that is expected to affect
another variable.
2. Dependent Variable

This is the response variable which is

observed and measured to determine the
effect of the independent variable. It is the
variable which appears, disappears, or
varies as the researcher introduces,
removes or varies the independent
variable. It is also called the effect, result,
object or criterion of the study.
3. Moderator Variable

The moderator variable is a special type of

independent variable which is measured,
manipulated or selected by the researcher
to discover whether it modifies the
relationship of the independent variable to
the observed phenomenon.
4. Control Variable

The control variable is a a variable which

is controlled by the researcher to cancel
out or neutralize any effect that might
otherwise have on the observed
phenomenon.
5. Intervening Variable

This a factor which theoretically affects

the observed phenomenon but cannot be
seen, measured or manipulated. Its
effects must be inferred from the effects
of the independent and moderator
variables on the observed phenomenon.
Measurement of Variables

4 Levels of Measurement

 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
Nominal Measurement

 simplest scale
 describes differences between things by
assigning them to categories.
 no "less than" or "greater than" relations
among them.
 each member can only be a member of only
one set ; all members of the same set have the
same defined characteristic
 examples include gender, nationality, and
religion.
 mode is the only kind of measure of central
tendency
Ordinal Measurement

 describes variables that can be ordered or

ranked
 permit the ranking of items from highest to
lowest
 have no absolute values, and differences
between adjacent ranks may not be equal
 examples include most measurements in
social sciences like attitudes
 central tendency can be represented by its
mode or its median
Interval Measurement

 shows that an exact distance between two

categories can be determined
 zero point is arbitrary
 equal differences between measurements
represent equivalent intervals
 examples are temperature, IQ and rates
 the central tendency can be represented by
its mode, its median or its arithmetic mean
Ratio Measurement

 describes variables that have equal

intervals and a fixed zero (or reference)
point.
 examples are the physical quantities, such
as mass, length or energy and the social
variables, such as age, length of residence
in a given place, or number of
organizational affiliations .
 the central tendency can be represented by
its mode, its median, its arithmetic mean, or
its geometric mean
Statistical Consultant

1. How many group of scores do you have?

1 Group > 1 Group

Are the scores Go to Question 2.

nominal or in
categories?

YES NO

Use frequency Are they scaled?

distribution
YES NO

Use mean & Use frequency

standard deviation distribution
2. How many dependent and independent variables do you have ?
2 3

Is the dependent Go to Question 3.

variable continuous
YES NO

Is the independent variable continuous?

NO YES YES NO

How many levels are there Use correlation Use point Use chi-square
of the independent variable or regression biseral test
correlation
2 >2

Parametric Nonparametric Parametric Nonparametric

Use t-test Use Mann- Use Use Kruskal-Wallis

Whitney ANOVA test
µ-test
3. Do you have more than one independent variable?

YES NO

Are all independent Go back to Question 2.

variables nominal?

YES NO

Use factorial Use multiple

ANOVA regression and other
advanced statistical
measures

BACK
1.4. Scope and Delimitations of the Study
The scope identifies the boundaries or
coverage of the study in term of subjects,
objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and
the issues to which the research is
focused.
The delimitations of the study defines the
constraints or weaknesses, which are not
within the control of the researcher, hence
they are not expected to be covered by
the study .
It sets the precise limits of the problem
area – what the researcher will include
and what he will not include. They can
be in terms of the subject and location
coverage of the investigation, including
the reasons for such limitations. Other
coverage of the limitations are
program/project components and time
span, including availability of time and
resources.
Examples of phrases to express the
scope of the study
The study will focus on…
The coverage of this study…
The study includes…
The study is concerned with…
The study consists of …
The study involves the…
Examples of phrases to express the
delimitations of the study
The study is limited to…
The study does not cover the…
The investigator limited this research to …
The study does not seek to include…

BACK
1.5. Significance of the Study

A short paragraph explaining why the

research is important and what possible
effects the results of the study will have on
present conditions. In writing this part, one
basic question has to be answered: Of
what use will be the findings of the study?
It should specify who or what agency/
organization will benefit from the findings
of the study and in what way will they
benefit.
By setting forth the significance of the
study, the researcher provides a
convincing rationale for justifying the
research problem.

BACK
1.6. Definition of Terms

It is useful to provide brief operational

definitions of the variables It is not
necessary to operationally define all
terms, just the principal variables.

The terms should be arranged in

alphabetical order and acronyms should
always be spelled out fully, especially if it
is not commonly known or if used for the
first time.
Two ways of Defining Terms

Conceptual Definitions. The terms are

defined based on concepts rather than
observable ones and are usually taken
from the dictionary, encyclopedia or
books.

Operational Definitions. The terms are

defined based on observable characteristics
and how it is used in the study.

BACK
Chapter 2. REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE

This refers to the body of literature related

to the study being proposed or a
discussion on how the research proposal
is related with current researches in the
field. This is a list of previous studies and
researches made which have some
relationship with the present problem.
Included may be some professional
literature or monographs written about the
subject area under investigation. A brief
annotation under each of these related
literature explaining the relevance of the
said materials to the present study is in
order.
Use and
Citation of
Literature
Review of Related Literature

The review of related literature involves

the systematic identification, location and
analysis of documents containing
information related to the research
problem.

Sources
articles, abstracts, reviews,
monographs, dissertations, books,
research reports and electronic media.
Purposes of the Review of Literature

To place the topic in a historical concept.

To provide for the assessment of previous
studies.
To justify selection of the topic
To provide the theoretical framework.
To assist the researcher in making his
research design.
To facilitate interpretation of the results of the
study.
Characteristics of Related Literature

The materials must be as recent as possible.

Materials must be as objective and unbiased
as possible.
Materials must be relevant to the study.
Materials must not be too few nor too many.
Approaches in Presenting Reviewed
Literature

Chronological approach
Literature is presented according to the time
they were written, that is following the time-
sequence pattern.

Type of literature approach

Literature is classified into two categories –
research and conceptual.
Findings, theme, or topic approach
Literature is classified according to
similarity of findings, theme or topic.

Country approach
Literature is classified by country, or into
“local” and “foreign” studies categories.
Writing the Literature Review

Sections of the Review

Introduction
Summary of articles
Conclusion
Introduction

Always begin with an introduction. Introduce

your topic and briefly explain why this is a
significant or important area for study.
Summary of Articles

For each study, briefly explain the purpose,

how it was conducted and the major findings.
Include a transition paragraph from one
subtopic to the next.
Present your knowledge on the topics.
Cite your sources. Use direct quotations
infrequently.
Example

Calvin and Brommel (1996) believe family

communication . . .

OR

Communication serves two primary functions

in families--cohesion and adaptability (Galvin
and Brommel, 1996).
Conclusion

Briefly summarize the major findings of the

studies chosen.
Justify the direct bearing and relevance of
the literature to the proposed study.
Comments about what questions need to still
be answered may be included.
Phrases that can help express the
relevance of the study

The related literature included has significant

relationship with this study in the sense that …
The related studies presented here were
selected on the basis of their significance in
promoting directions for this present study….
The study of ... provided a framework for the …
The dissertation of … is especially relevant to
the study because …
The different concepts on …as reflected in
several studies revealed the following insights
as they are related to the present study…
Like the previous studies presented, this study
on … will serve….
This study is related to other studies conducted
because ...
The present study will be similar to that of … in
the following aspects.
Reminders:
Use the past tense to describe the procedure
of a study that has already been conducted
and the results of a completed study.
It should be written in a formal, scholarly style.
NEVER PLAGIARIZE. Give credit to the
original author of ideas.

BACK
Chapter 3. METHODOLOGY

This section includes information on the

research design to be used, the
techniques to be utilized in gathering
and analyzing data, the type of data
needed to test the hypothesis.
Statistical techniques in analyzing the
data are also included.
This section may contain the following
subtopics:

 Research Design
 Sample size, sampling design and technique
 Subjects/participants
 Research Instruments
 Research Procedure
 Statistical Treatment
Research Design

The method of research used should be

explained briefly. The procedural part of
the method, its appropriateness to the
study, and some of its advantages
should also be discussed.
 Matrix of Research Goals and Types of Research Designs
GOAL
1. Descriptive
To understand the nature,
characteristics, components,
aspects of the phenomena
2. Exploratory
To uncover data on phenomena
that are not yet fully known; to
surface information for possible
formulation of hypothesis
3. Pilot Study
To initiate and experiment with a new
set-up or system and determine
results; this can be replicated in
other situations
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Descriptive Research
Case study, survey research, library
research, field research,
documentary research, content
analysis, participatory research
2. Exploratory Research
Library research, documentary
research, survey research, case
study, field research
3. Action Research
Experimental research, survey
research, case study, participatory
research
 GOAL RESEARCH DESIGN
4. Explanatory-Experimental 4. Experimental Research
To explain the relationship between Pre-experimental, classical, quasi-
variables, between phenomena experimental, causal-comparative
To test causal relationship; to
determine the true cause and true
effects
To predict the relationship between
two variables, the change in one is
the cause of or brings about the
change in the other
To test the effects of an intervention
or change; if effects were due to the
intervention

5. Feasibility 5. Feasibility Study

To determine the factors for the Survey. library research
success or viability of a planned
course of action
 GOAL RESEARCH DESIGN
6. Evaluation 6. Evaluation Research
To assess the impact, effects, Policy research, survey, case, field
results, outcomes of operations, and participatory research
policies, programs, behavior;
assessment of the processes or
operations involved.

7. Policy Analysis 7. Policy Research

To generate information relevant to Survey. Field, library, documentary,
the development and formulation of historical, descriptive, experimental,
policy; assessment of effects, evaluation research
outcomes, impact of policies

8. Explanatory-non-causal 8. Correlational Research

To determine the relationship or Case. Field study
association of variables not
necessarily in terms of cause and
effect
Research Designs

 Historical Research
 Descriptive Research
 Experimental Research
 Ex-Post Facto Research
 Participatory Research
Historical Research

Historical research interprets past trends of

attitude, event and fact. It is regarded as
much more than just a chronicle of the
impressive events of the past; its data
must find applicability to contemporary
issues and problems.
Descriptive Research

Descriptive research involves the collection

of data in order to test hypotheses or to
answer questions concerning the present
status of the subject of the study.
Types of Descriptive Researches

1. Case Studies
Case studies involve studying one person
or just a few persons over a considerable
period of time. This entails discovering
and studying all the important variables
which have contributed to the history of
the subject.
2. Surveys

Surveys involve getting information

involving a relatively large number of
cases. It measures existing
phenomenon without inquiring why it
exists.
3. Developmental Study
Developmental study uses longitudinal and
cross-sectional methods. The longitudinal
method studies the same sample
participants over an extended period of time
while the cross-sectional method studies
participants of various characteristics at the
same point in time.
4. Flow-up Study

A follow-up study is employed when one

intends to investigate the subsequent
development of participants after a
specified treatment or condition.
5. Documentary Analysis

Documentary analysis involves

gathering data by examining records
and documents.
6. Trend Analysis

Trend analysis involves studies that

seek future status. It is employed in
studies which aim to project the
demands or needs of the people in the
future.
7. Correlational Studies

Correlational studies are designed to

determine the extent to which different
variables are related to each other in
the population of interest.
Experimental Research

Experimental research has to do with

controlled observation of change and
development in which the researcher
manipulates at least one variable
(independent variable), controls other
relevant variables, and observes the
effect on one or more dependent
variables.
Types of Experimental Designs

Single-group Design. This involves a

single treatment with two or more levels

TEST RESULTS
Subjects
Method 1 Method 2 Method 3
1 xx xx xx
2 xx xx xx
3 xx xx xx
4 xx xx xx
5 xx xx xx
Two-group Design. This involves a single
treatment with two or more levels

Group Scores of Subjects Mean (x)

Control Group xx xx
Experimental Group xx xx
Two-pair group Design. This is an
elaboration of the two-group design where
there are two experimental groups and
two control groups.

Control Group Experimental Group

Trials 1 2 1 2
1 xx xx xx xx
2 xx xx xx xx
3 xx xx xx xx
4 xx xx xx xx
5 xx xx xx xx
Parallel-group Design. This is a design in
which two or more groups are used at the
same time with only one single variable
manipulated or changed. The
experimental group varies while the
parallel group serves as control for
comparative purposes
Score of Subjects
Control Group Experimental Group
1 1 2
xx xx xx
xx xx xx
xx xx xx
Pretest-Posttest Design. Both the control
and experimental groups are carefully
selected through randomization
procedures. They are given pretest and
posttest at the beginning and end of the
study respectively.

Means of the Tests

Group Pretest Posttest
Control xx xx
Experimental xx xx
Counter-balanced or Latin Square Design.
This design is also called rotation design.
It involves an exchange of two or more
treatments taken by the subjects during
the experiment. The arrangement
employed is Latin squares in which each
variable is a form of square occurring
once in each row or column. This is also
called quasi-experimental design.
 Variable B
Variable A
B1 B2 B3 B4

A1 S1 S2 S3 S4

A2 S2 S3 S4 S1

A3 S3 S4 S1 S2

A4 S4 S1 S2 S3
Randomized Complete Block Design. This is
designed in which a group of test subjects
is studied only once but subsequent
treatment is applied to determine the
cause of change. There is no control in
this design but the subjects will undergo
randomization procedures.
 Replications
Treatment
1 2 3

T1 xx xx xx

T2 xx xx xx

T3 xx xx xx

T4 xx xx xx
Correlational Design. It is used to
determine the relationship between two
dependent variables X and Y on how
they are manipulated by the
independent variable.

Dependent Variables
Independent D1 D2
Variables
I1 xx xx
I2 xx xx
Ex Post Facto (Causal-Comparative)
Research

Ex post facto research investigates a

problem by studying the variables in
retrospect. The researcher attempts to
determine the cause, or reason, for
existing differences in the behavior of the
subjects under study.
Inferences about relations among
variables are made, without direct
intervention from concomitant variation of
independent and dependent variables.
Participatory Research

Participatory research is people-

oriented and focuses on the involvement
of everyone touched by the problem from
the planning stage to the implementation
and evaluation of solutions.
Types of Participatory Researches

1. Ethnography
Process of describing a culture or way
of life from the peoples’ point of view

2. Natural Experiment
Refers to a situation where a split or
division has occurred between group
members and the researcher is
afforded an opportunity to study the
differentiation process of social
structure
3. Case Study

When all you have is information about

one unique experience and you are
going to make a generalization
Involves unstructured interview and
ethnographic methodology
Guidelines for a Good Research Design

– an ethical design.
– capable of obtaining the most reliable and
valid data given all possible constraints.
– capable of collecting the needed data or
measuring whatever it is that happens in
the field.
– helps an investigator avoid making
erroneous conclusions.
BACK
Sample Size, Sampling Design and Technique

The researcher must explain very clearly

how he collected his sample. He must
show that his sample is representative of
the population by showing that he used
the appropriate technique of sampling.
This is very important because if sampling
is faulty, his findings and conclusions will
not be valid nor reliable.
The size of the sample used in the study
must be justified.
Appropriate Sampling Design

The choice of which sampling design to

use is related to the manifestation of the
phenomenon within the population

• Population Characteristics
• Experimental aims
SAMPLING METHOD

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling

• Random • Convenience
• Purposive
• Systematic
• Quota
• Stratified
• Snowball
• Cluster • Network
• Multi-Stage
Probability Sampling

– Each member of the population has an equal

and known chance of being selected.
– Advantage - simple and easy to apply when
small populations are involved.
– Disadvantage – very cumbersome if it involves
very large populations.
Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

This is the basic probability sampling design. It

means we are giving every unit of the
population an equal chance and non-zero
probability of being included in the sample.

Useful in estimating and comparing population

parameters, estimating and comparing means and
in dependence relationship (Prediction)
SRS Techniques

Lottery Method
Names of each member of the population are
written on different pieces of paper and mixed
well. The papers are drawn one at a time until
the total sample size is reached.
Table of Random Numbers
Each sampling unit of the population is listed and
given a number. The numbers are drawn from this
table.
2. Systematic Sampling
– Called the Nth name selection technique.
– Also called interval sampling because there is a
gap, or interval, between each selection.
– This method is often used in industry particularly in
the analysis of pattern and process, where an item
is selected for testing from a production line (say
every 15 minutes) to ensure that machines and
equipment are working to specification.
– This technique could also be used when
questioning a sample survey.
3. Stratified Sampling

– This technique is used to ensure that different

groups of a population are adequately
represented in the sample.
– Useful in estimating and comparing means
– This is done by first determining the different
groups according to criteria. Then based on the
identified sampling size, an appropriate
proportion of sample is chosen from each
group.
4. Cluster Sampling

– This technique is used in large scale surveys

– Useful in estimating and comparing means
– The set of sampling units to be included in the
survey is arrived at by first sampling larger
groupings, called clusters. The cluster is
selected by simple or stratified sampling. The
final selection from within the cluster is also
done by simple or stratified sampling.
5. Multi-stage Sampling
– This technique is used for national, regional,
provincial or country level studies. The
selection of the sample is accomplished as
follows:
1. Decide on the level of analysis such as
national, regional, provincial, city or municipal
levels.
2. Determine the sample size per level-stage.
3. Obtain the samples per level-stage by
random sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling

– No way that each of the units in the target

population has the same chance of being
included in the sample.
– No assurance that every unit has some chance
of being included.
– Conclusion derived from data gathered is
limited only to the sample itself.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Convenience Sampling
Members of the population are chosen based
on their relative ease of access.

2. Purposive Sampling
The researcher chooses the sample based on
who he thinks would be appropriate for the study.
This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area
being researched.
3. Quota Sampling
The researcher determines the sampling size
which should be filled up. It is specified how
many will be included according to some criteria
such as gender, age, or social class.
4. Snowball Sampling
This type of sampling starts with the known
sources of information who fits the criteria for
inclusion in the study, who will in turn
recommend other sources of information. As this
goes on, data accumulates. It is used when there
is inadequate information for making the
sampling frame.
5. Networking Sampling

This is used to find socially devalued urban

populations such as addicyts, alcoholics, child
abusers, criminals, because they are usually
“hidden from outsiders”.
Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling

– For homogeneous population - if the typical,

normal or average is desired to be known, a
smaller sample is enough. If difference is
desired to be known, a larger sample is
needed.
– For heterogeneous population - if the typical,
normal or average is desired to be known, a
larger sample is needed. If difference is
desired to be known, a smaller sample is
sufficient.
– The size of a sample varies inversely as the
size of the population. A larger proportion is
required of a smaller population. A larger
proportion may do for a bigger population.
– For greater accuracy and reliability of results,
a greater sample is desirable.
Slovin Formula for Sample Size Computation

– Determine the size of the population.

– Decide on the margin of error. It should not
be higher than 5%.
– Use the formula:
n = size of the sample
N
n N = size of the population
1  Ne 2
e = margin of error

BACK
Subjects/Participants
This section is labeled as subjects or participants
depending on whether animals or humans are
used in the study.
Indicate who participated in the study, how many,
and how were they selected. With human subjects,
be sure to address the issue of informed consent.
Include any details which are relevant to the study.
For humans, include the demographic
characteristics.
BACK
Research Instruments

For descriptive research, the

questionnaire, test, interview,
observation schedule, checklist, or
rating scale may be described here.
How the validity and reliability of these
instruments were tested must also be
explained.
For experimental research, describe
what pieces of apparatus or equipment
were used and how they functioned in
the study. Also enumerate the actual
materials used in the study.

BACK
Research Procedure

For descriptive research, the

researcher must explain his data
gathering and processing procedures.

For experimental research, the

researcher must describe the
procedure used in the laboratory or
field.

BACK
Statistical Treatment

The statistical tools used to answer the

research questions may be described
here and the formula may be
explained. The level of probability may
be stated to determine the degree of
significance of the findings.
Considerations in the choice of
statistical treatment:
1. The statistical test to be used must be
appropriate.
2. The choice of a statistical test is
dictated by the questions for which the
research is designed, and the level,
distribution, and dispersion of data.
3. Other considerations include the extent
of your knowledge of statistics and the
availability of resources in connection
with the computation and interpretation
of data.
General Types of Statistical Tests

Parametric Tests
used for data that are of the interval or
ratio levels of measurements. In addition,
the within group scatter of scores of each
of the groups to be compared should be
equal, and that the population distributions
from where the samples were obtained
must be normal.
Nonparametric Tests
are called distribution-free statistics since
their uses do not always depend on some
specific type of score distribution like the
normal curve.
Examples of Statistical Tests

1. The Z-test of one sample mean is used

to determine if an obtained sample
mean or average of scores or values is
but a random sample from a population
with a given or hypothesized or
expected population mean.
2. The t-test for independent sample means is
used to determine if an observed
difference between the averages of two
independent groups is statistically
significant.

3. The t-test for dependent sample means is

used to determine if there is a
significant difference between two
groups of correlated scores in terms of
their means.
4. The one-way analysis of variance is used
in order to determine if there are
differences among means of three or
more groups. When a significant value
yielded by the analysis of variance
test(also called F value) occurs, there is
need to do a posteriori test in order to
determine which means are different.
5. The two-way analysis of variance, also
called a factorial analysis of variance, is
employed in order to determine the main
and interaction effects of two
independent factors.

6. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation

is employed when there are two sets of
scores and you would like to determine
if the two sets are correlated.
7. The chi-square goodness-of-fit test tells if
an observed frequency distribution on a
variable differs significantly from an
expected or theoretical distribution of
frequencies. The computation calls for
data on either the nominal or ordinal
level.
8. The chi-square test of association is used to
determine whether or not two variables
are associated with each other.
9. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance is used to
determine the degree of agreement or
concordance among subgroups in ranking a
number of sets of items or aspects on the
variables of interest.

10. Spearman rho is a test of correlation that is

used when the values of both the X and Y
variables are ordinal or rank ordered.

BACK
Other Parts
Timetable
List down, in outline form, the steps to
be done in undertaking the research
and indicate opposite each step the
approximate period of time to be spent
in each phase of the study.
Working Bibliography

This consists of publications which have

been consulted prior to making the
outline. It may also include titles which
are intended to be consulted further.
How to list
the
bibliography
using APA
Style
Book
Mitchell, T. R., & Larson, J. R. (1987). People in organizations:
an introduction to organizational behavior (3rd ed.) New
York: McGraw hill.

Group Author (government agency)

as publisher
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1991). Estimated resident
population by age and sex in statistical local areas. New
South Wales, June 1990 (No. 3209.1). Canberra,
Australian Capital Territory: Author.
Book, no author or editor
Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993).
Springfield, MA: Merriam Webster.

Article or chapter in an edited book

Bjork, R. A. (1989). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive
mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Roediger 111 &
F.I.M. Craik (Eds), Varieties of memory and consciousness
(pp. 309-330). Hillslade, NJ: Erlbaum.
Journal article
Saywitz, K. J., & Mannarino, A. P. (2000). Treatment for sexually
abused children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 55,
1040-1049.

Newspaper article
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic,
social status. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
Unpublished thesis
Almeida, D. M. (1990). Fathers’ participation in family work.
Consciousness for fathers’ stress and father-child relations.
Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Victoria, Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada.
 Internet

VandenBos, G., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in

the selection of resources by psychology undergraduates.
Journal of Bibliographic Research. 5, 117-123. Retrival
October 13, 2001, from http://jbr.org/articles.html

University of California, San Francisco, Institute for Health and

Aging. (1996, November). Chronic care in America: A 21st
century challenge. Retrieval September 9, 2000, from the
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Web site:
http://www.rwjf.org/library/chcare/
Proposed Budget
List down proposed budget for expected
expenses.
Reminders:
Type using double space
Use 8.5” x 11” bond paper
Use 1” upper, right, and lower margins
Use 1.5” left margin
Page no. is placed at upper right hand
corner of page.
Chapter 5 OUTLINE DEFENSE

Topics
 Guidelines in the Conduct of the Oral
Outline Defense
Criteria and Rating Scale
Objectives
Be oriented with the policies and
guidelines in the conduct of the
outline defense for undergraduate
thesis.
Be acquainted with the criteria and
rating scale in the evaluation of an
outline presentation.
The following guidelines shall apply in the
conduct of undergraduate thesis oral
defense.

1. Students applying for outline defense shall

coordinate with the subject teacher for
his/her schedule and panel members.
2. Three copies of thesis outline shall be
submitted before the scheduled outline
defense, for distribution to the panel
members.
3. A power point presentation of the research
outline is required during the defense.
4. Students are advised to wear appropriate attire
during the oral defense.
5. A student shall not be given a grade if he/she
cannot submit a revised copy of the research
outline properly endorsed/approved by the panel
members.
Evaluation Criteria for Oral Presentation

1. The Problem. Gives a clear exposition on

the nature and background of the problem
area in general and the rationale of the
study. The problem is original, unique,
relevant and reflects a noteworthy
contribution to the researchers’ field of
specialization and to society in general.
2. Review of Related Literature. Provides
profound insights into the nature of the
research problem. Discussions on theories,
concepts, facts, and/or ideas are adequate
and relevant. Points of agreement,
disagreements, similarities, contrasts of
related works are given.
3. Methodology. Description of the research
approach used is concisely written.
Procedures are presented/written in very
clear and logical sequence. The rationale
behind the choice of method/procedure is
explained. Sample size, sampling technique,
research instruments and statistical
treatment are suitable.
4. General Format. The paper is very well-
organized and contains all the main
requisites of a typical thesis outline. The
prescribed rules on the format, spacing, and
pagination are strictly followed. Physical
appearance is attractive and mechanics of
writing is satisfactory. The style used is
impersonal, straight forward, and objective
and effective.
6. Oral Presentation. The oral presentation is
methodical, rational and coherent. It is brief
but complete. Appropriate and attractive
visual aids are used. Presenters are are
articulate and questions are answered
satisfactorily.
Grading System

CRITERIA WEIGHT (%)

The Problem 30
Related Lit/Studies 20
Methodology 20
General Format 15

Oral Presentation 15
Rating Scale

SCORE RANGE DESCRIPTION

100.00-95.00 Outstanding
94.99-90.00 Very Good
89.99-85.00 Good
84.99-80.00 Poor

79.99-75.00 Very Poor

74.99-BELOW Failed
Outstanding. The indicators of the criterion are carried
out very evidently.
Very Good. The indicators of the criterion are carried
out evidently.
Good. The indicators of the criterion are carried out
fairly.
Poor. The indicators of the criterion are carried out
deficiently.
Very Poor. The indicators of the criterion are carried
out very deficiently.
Failure. The indicators of the criterion are not evident
at all.
Good Bless