Last updated: 4/28/2019

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND

SELECTION
(WEEK 2-3)

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Contact Hours

Total Student
Lecture Tutorial Self – Study Library Search Assignment Exam Learning Time
(hours)

4 4 8 8 2 NIL 26

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Learning Outcomes
• Able to develop process flow sheet using structured
approach

• Define and describe the steps involved in Douglas Method

• Define and describe Onion Model

• Able to perform process design using Douglas Method /

Onion Model
• Familiarize with symbols and guidelines in P&ID
development
• Obtain basic understanding on fluid flow in piping
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Introduction – flow sheeting

• Key document in process design

• Shows the arrangement of the equipment

selected to carry out the process;
- the stream connections
- stream flow-rates and compositions
- the operating conditions

• It is a diagrammatic model of the process

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Introduction – flow sheeting

• Who will use Flow Sheet ?
- specialist design groups as the basis for their
designs which include piping, instrumentation,
equipment design and layout.

- operating personnel for the preparation of

operating manuals and operator training.

• During plant start-up and subsequent operation,

the flowsheet forms a basis for comparison of
operating performance with design.
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Introduction – flow sheeting

• Flow sheet consists information on material balances
over the complete process and each individual unit.
Energy balances information presented to determine
the energy flows and the service requirements.

• Manual  tedious and time consuming when the

process is large or complex.

• Computer-aided  extensively used to facilitate this

(increase study of alternatives and optimisation)

• Basis for the preparation of P&IDs

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TYPES OF FLOW SHEET

•Block Diagram

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Block Diagram
• Simplest form of presentation
• Each block represents a single piece of equipment or a
complete stage in the process.
• Useful for showing simple processes
• Their use is limited for complex processes to showing the
overall process
• Limited use in engineering documents
• Stream flowrates and compositions can be shown on the
diagram adjacent to the stream lines
• Blocks are usually mixture of rectangles of circles

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PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION

• Equipment is normally drawn in a stylised

pictorial form using symbols for the
equipment.

• Most design offices have their own symbols

• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

has published a set of symbols for use on
flowsheets

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•Equipment Symbols

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www.conceptdraw.com
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•Valves and Piping Symbols

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www.conceptdraw.com
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FLOW SHEET PRESENTATION

• There are various way of showing data on

the flow sheet.

• The simplest method is to tabulate the data

in blocks alongside the process stream lines.
- suitable for simple process
- few equipment process
- limited information can be shown
- difficult to arrange for neat presentation

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FLOW SHEET PRESENTATION

• Information to be included -- depends on the particular design
office.
• Essential information includes:
- stream composition (either as mole fraction or mass flowrate)
- total stream mass flow rate
- stream temperature
- stream pressure

• Optional information includes:

- molar percentages composition,
- physical property data for the streams (density, viscosity)
- stream name
- stream enthalpy

• These information is provided by the Process Engineer

responsible for the flow-sheet and is available for subsequent
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FLOW SHEET PRESENTATION

• A better method for the data on the flow-sheets is

- have the pictorial representation
- each stream is numbered
- the data tabulated at the bottom of the sheet or on a
different sheet.

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FLOW SHEET PRESENTATION

• The sequence should follow the proposed plant

layout.

• For a complex process, several sheets may be

needed and the continuation of the process
streams from one sheet to another has to be
clearly indicated.

• The stream line numbers follow consecutively from

left to right of the layout, as far as practicable.

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FLOW SHEET PRESENTATION

• All the process streams have to be numbered and the
data for the streams given.

• How precise the data need to be shown?

eg: mass flow: 548652kg/s or 548652.236kg/s
mass fraction: 0.0032 or 0.00
most important is must balance based on precision shown
Note: Do not put ‘0’ unless it is exactly not exist. Present as “TRACES”

• Each equipment has to be identified with a code

number and name. (Eg Separator is V-XX, Heat
Exchanger HX-XX, Column is C-XX, Reactor-R-XX)
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FLOW SHEET DEVELOPMENT

• Two important process synthesis models are the

hierarchical approach and the “onion model”
• James M. Douglas has developed a methodical
approach to the design of chemical engineering
systems.
• It is known as the “ Douglas Method” and is
based on hierarchical decision-making using
economic feasibility as a main criterion for
process evaluation

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Douglas method
•Hierarchical approach in decision making

•Hierarchy – An arrangement or classification

of things according to relative importance or
inclusiveness (Oxford dictionary)

•Conceptual design divided into 5

generic steps.
These vary from rapid, simple estimates to detailed
calculations

•At
every stage economic feasibility is used as the
main criterion for process evaluation
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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 1

• Level One assimilates very basic process information
• Information available / required at this initial stage are:
- reactions and reaction condition (any side reaction)
- desired production rate (yield and selectivity)
- desired production purity and info on price vs purity of product
- price for raw material and info on price vs purity of raw material
- rate of reaction and rate of catalyst deactivation
- any processing constraints
- other plant and site data
- physical properties of all components
- information on the safety, toxicity and environmental impact of the
materials involved in the process.
- cost data for by-products, equipment and utilities

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 1

• Reaction information includes:

- basic chemistry for the main reactions: reaction stoichiometry and
molar flow rates of feed or exit components
- any competing side reactions will occur
- range of temperature and pressure for the reactions
- phases of the reaction system
- product distribution versus conversion
- conversion verses space velocity or residence time
- state of catalyst (homogeneous, slurry, powder, packed bed, etc),
deactivation rate, regenerability of catalyst and method to regenerate

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 1

ABC
B
composition

A
B: desired product
C: by product with
only fuel value
C
time

• A mass balance is performed to determine input or

output molar flows
• A simple economic analysis of the process based
solely on market worth of chemicals comprising
input and output streams specified by user
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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 1

• Identify the Process Operating Mode
 process is batch or continuous ?

• Generally assumed the process is continuous

( 24 hr/d, 7d/wk)
Batch
Catalyst Product

Feed Product
Heater Reactor Separator

Heat
Feed
Heater
Continuous Catalyst
Reactor
Separator
Heat

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 1

• Factors that favour selection of batch process are

- Production rate
 Usually batch is <1x106 lb/yr, or sometimes < 10 x106 lb/yr
 Multiproduct plants
- Market forces
Seasonal demands
Short product lifetime
- Scale-up factors
Long reactions times
Handling slurries at low flow rates
Rapidly fouling materials

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

• Sets the basic input-output structure of the
flowsheet, considering the various flow sheeting
alternatives
• Purpose of an investment in chemical process is to
produce a product and derive a profit
• Raw material cost vs product value
• Value of the product has to exceed the raw material
cost, otherwise non-economical
• For the reverse, further analyses need to be carried
out to find whether the process is truly economical.
• Eliminate non-feasible options from further
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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

•Purification of feeds
 What is product purify required?
 Feed impurity is not inert and present in significant quantity, then remove
it, else complicate separation downstream
 Gas feed, process the impurity
 Liquid feed, also by product or product component, then just feed through
separation system
 Present as azeotrope with reactant, process the impurity
 Inert, but easier to separate from product than feed, then process the
impurity
 Will poison the catalyst, remove it
 Economic trade-off between building a pre-process separation and
increase operating cost of handling inert material

“If we are not certain that decision made is correct, list the opposite as
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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

•Remove or Recycle a reversible by product

Toluene + H2  Benzene + CH4
2 Benzene  Diphenyl + H2
• Recycle reversible by-products need oversize the
equipment in the recycle loop to accommodate the
equilibrium flow
• Trade-off with increased raw material cost of reactant

Equipment Raw
cost material
Cost

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

•Use gas recycle and purge stream

 “Light” reactant, or by product, common to use gas recycle and
purge stream
 “Light” component defined as those boils lower than propylene
(-55°F or -48°C)
 Generally, gaseous reactants less expensive, need to be
condensed at high pressure and using refrigerant. Refrigeration is
one of the most expensive processing operations
 Cheaper to lose the gaseous reactants than to recover it
 Membrane technology, ie: Monsanto’s prism process  make
gas separations less expensive  can be considered as
alternative (constraint: limited info available)

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

•Recover and recycle reactants

 General rule, recover 99% of valuable materials
 If air and water is used, not bother. Instead, feed them in
excess to force some valuable reactant to complete conversion
 Eg: complete conversion of the fuel with excess of air for
combustion
 Trade off with operating costs of blower, as well as reheating
and cooling costs
 Always use in optimum amount
 Cost of excess water could be significant (depends on where is
your location!!)
 Need to consider pollution treatments cost
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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

•Number of product streams

 List all components going to leave the reactor, include feeds, all
reactants and products from each reaction
 Classify each component and assign destination code (eg: vent for
gaseous by prods and impurities; recycle for reactants and reaction
intermediates; primary product, valuable by products)
 Arrange the components by their boiling points
 Never advantageous to separate two streams and then mix them
again

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

Example:

Components Boiling points Destination code

H2 -253°C Recycle and
CH4 -161°C purge
Benzene 80°C Primary product
Toluene 111°C Recycle
Diphenyl 253°C Fuel

Toluene + H2  Benzene + CH4

2 Benzene  Diphenyl + H2

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 2

Purge; H2, CH4

H2, CH4 Benzene

Process Diphenyl
Toluene

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 3

• Hard-core process flow-sheet decisions are made in Level 3
• How many reactors are needed, whether some components
need to be separated between reactors? Series of reactions at
different T and P? Different Catalyst is required?
Toluene + H2  Benzene + CH4 1150-1300°F, 500 psia
2 Benzene  Diphenyl + H2

Acetone  Ketene + CH4 700°C, 1atm

Ketene  CO + ½ C2H4
Ketene + Acetic Acid  Acetic Anhydride 80°C, 1 atm

• No of recycle streams
• Distinguish between gas and liquid recycle streams
- gas: requires compressors  expensive
- liquid: requires pumps
(additional equipment cost vs saving material cost)
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Douglas method – LEVEL 3

• Excess of reactant required? Effects on product

distribution?
• Reactor operating conditions-P,T Phase, Catalyst
• Is heating or cooling needed
• Types of reactors- tubular, shell & tube, stirred-tank, fixed-
bed , fluidised-bed, kilns etc
• Reactor costs and its effect on economic potential

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 4

• Involves the design of separation system

• Depending on the phase states of the process
streams involved, a vapour or liquid recovery
system must be designed
• Types of separators-which one is most suitable
• Vapor recovery systems include condensation,
absorption, adsorption, membrane process and
reaction systems

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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 4

• Liquid recovery systems include distillation,

extraction, crystallization, adsorption and reaction
• Sequencing of separators and operating conditions
• Heuristics used for column sequencing
- corrosive components to be removed earlier
- same for reactive components and monomer
- products and recycle streams removed as distillates, not
condensates
- components in large amounts, lightest components should
be removed first
- equimolar split is favoured
- difficult separation should be saved for last
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DOUGLAS METHOD – LEVEL 5

• Heat exchanger network is designed
• Necessary to calculate the temperature/enthalpy
curves for each process stream to design an
effective network
• Have to perform Heat Exchanger Network Synthesis
• Use of software packages eg Flowtran© to find the
minimum heating and cooling requirements of a
process
• Determine the minimum number of heat exchangers
needed
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Douglas method – Hierarchy of decision

1. Batch vs continuous
2. Input-output structure of the flow sheet
3. Reactor design and recycle structure of the
flow sheet
4. General structure of the separation system
a. Vapor recovery system
b. Liquid separation system
5. Heat exchanger network
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The onion model

REACTOR

SEPARATION
AND
RECYCLE

HEAT
RECOVERY

UTILITIES

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THE ONION MODEL

UTILITIES

HEAT RECOVERY

SEPARATION AND
RECYCLE

REACTOR

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THE ONION MODEL

• Onion model is an alternative way to present the
hierarchical approach to process design.
• Process design begins at the center of the onion, with the
reactor and proceeds outward.
• The reactor design influences the separation and recycle
structure ( the second layer of the onion) which are
designed next.
• The reactor, recycle and separator structures dictate the
overall heat-recovery requirements, so the heat recovery
network design comes next
• Finally the process utility systems are designed to provide
additional heating and cooling requirements that cannot be
satisfied through heat recovery
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REACTOR

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SEPARATION
AND RECYCLE

•Products and byproducts formed in the reactor need to

be separated from the unconverted reactant for further
purification while the unconverted raw material needs
to be recycled back to the reactor.

Liquid or vapor
separation??

•Liquid separation
•Vapor separation includes
condensers, flash tanks, includes distillation,
absorbers, adsorbers and gas solvent extraction,
separation membranes stripping, filtration,
centrifugation etc
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HEAT RECOVERY

• Process heating and cooling loads are

determined after the process structure within
the two layers of the onion model has been finalized
• Design and model the heat exchange network
• Use of process tools of integration which divides the heat
exchanger network (HEN) into 2 stages-utility targeting and
network design
• After preliminary network has been synthesized, the process
flowsheet undergoes a complete re-simulation to verify the
energy balances

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UTILITIES

•The outermost layer of the onion model i.e. utility

system is addressed.
•Selection of hot and cold utilities to be

identified.
•Placement of heat pumps and heating

engines to be considered
•Process simulator is a useful tool to

•evaluate the selected utilities

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P&I Diagram
• The process flow sheet (PFD) shows the
arrangement of the major pieces of equipment
and their interconnection. It is a description of the
nature of the process.
• The Piping and Instrument Diagram (P&ID) shows
the engineering details of the equipment,
instruments, piping, valves and fittings and their
arrangement.
• The P&ID is often called the Engineering Flowsheet
or Engineering Line Diagram.
• Once the P&ID is ready, the Instrument Engineers
will use it to size the Instruments, Piping will use it to
route the pipes etc
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P&I Diagram
• The P&ID shows the arrangement of the equipment,
piping, pumps, instruments, valves and other fittings. It
should include:
 All process equipment identified by the equipment
number. Location of the nozzles should be shown
 All pipes, identified by a line number. The pipe size and
material of construction should also be shown.
 All valves, control and block valves with an identification
number. The type and size should be shown
 Ancillary fittings that are part of the piping system such
as sight-glasses, strainers, stream traps also identified
with a identification number
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P&I Diagram

 Pumps, identified by a suitable code number

 All control loops and instruments, with an identification
number
•Symbols and layout
• The symbols used to show the equipment , valves ,
instruments and control loops depends on the particular
design office. However, most use standards symbols given
is British or American standards
• Computer aided drafting tools are used eg. AutoCAD or
Visio etc

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P&I Diagram -- instrumentation

• Instruments are provided to monitor the key process

variables during plant operation
• They may be incorporated in automatic control loops or
used for manual monitoring of the process operations

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P&I Diagram – control system

•Primary objective when specifying instrumentation and
control schemes are:
• Safe plant operation
• To keep the process variables within known safe
operating limits
• To detect dangerous situations as they develop and
to provide alarms and automatic shutdown systems
• To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent
dangerous operating procedures
• Production rate  to achieve the design product
output

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P&I Diagram – control system

• Product quality to maintain the product
composition within the specified quality standards
• Cost  to operate at the lowest production cost,
commensurate with the other objectives
•Typical control systems
• Level control
- where an interface exists between 2 phases (liq-vap)
some means of maintaining the interface at the
required level is provided e.g level control valve on the
discharge of the pump

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P&I Diagram – control system

• Pressure control
- necessary for most systems handling vapour or gas
• Flow control
- associated with inventory control in a storage tank or
other equipment, eg compressor or pump, may need to
provide a bypass control valve
• Temperature control
- heat exchangers : control the temperature by varying the
flow of the heating or cooling medium
• Others include ratio control etc

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P&I Diagram – Alarms, trips, interlocks

• Alarms are used to alert operators of serious and
potentially hazardous, deviations in process
conditions.
• Instruments fitted with switches and relays to
operate audible and visual alarms on the control
panels and annunciator panels
• In case of delay or lack of response by operator ,
the instruments are fitted with a trip system to take
action automatically
• Interlock is required when it is required to follow a
fixed sequence of operations.

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P&I DIAGRAM – CONTROL VALVE

•Control valve
•Pneumatic or
electric controlled

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Temperature
control

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P&I Diagram – valves and piping

• Types of valves
- Shut-off valves: to close off the flow, also known as
block valve
- Control valves: both manual and automatic, to
regulate flow

• Selection of Valves
- shut off purpose, select valve that give positive seal
when close and minimum resistance to flow when open
 gate, plug and ball valves
- control valve, smooth control over full range of flow,
from fully open to close  globe valves

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P&I Diagram – valves and piping

• Pipe Schedule: Wall thickness, allowance for corrosion

• Pipe fittings (45°/90° elbow, reducer, tee, flange)
• Pipe supports
• Pipe stressing – vibration, thermal expansion, weights of pipe/ content
• Pipe size selection based on velocity
• Liq: velocity 1-3m/s, ∆P 0.5kPa/m
• Gases and vapors: velocity 15-30m/s, ∆P 0.02 percent of line
pressure
• High pressure steam>8bar: velocity 30-60m/s
• Economic pipe diameter
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Fluid flow and piping

• Flow in pipes and Reynolds No
𝜌𝑢𝑑
Re =
𝜇

<2000

>4000
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FLUID FLOW AND PIPING

• Pressure loss due to friction friction factor &
effect on pipe roughness

• Laminar flow, f obtained from curve

• Turbulent flow, pipe roughness need to be

considered

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Miscellaneous Pressure Losses

• Obstruction to flow will generate turbulence and cause pressure drop,

eg: pipe fittings such as bends, elbows, reducing and enlargement
sections.
• Valves used in the piping for isolation and control contribute to
pressure drop also.
• Two methods to be used :
- As number of velocity heads, K, lost at each fitting or valve. A
velocity head is 𝑢2 /2g, meters of the fluid. Total number of
velocity heads lost due to all the fittings and valves is added to the
pressure drop due to pipe friction.
- As length of pipe that would cause the same pressure loss as the
fitting or valve. This will be in function of pipe diameter. The
equivalent diameter is added to actual pipe length .

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Fluid flow and piping

• Pressure drop calculation (liquid)

• a. due to friction
L = length of pipe
u = velocity of fluid
f = friction factor
d = pipe diameter
 = fluid density

• b. due to valves/ fittings

• use the equivalent length table shown, add into L (length of pipe)

• c. due to elevation

•  = fluid density
𝑃 = 𝑔𝐻 • g = acceleration of gravity
• H = elevation change

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Fluid flow and piping

• Exercise:

• A pipeline connecting two tanks contains four standard elbows, a

globe valve that is fully open and a gate valve that is half open. The
line is commercial steel pipe, 25mm internal diameter with 120m
length. Properties of the fluids are: viscosity = 0.99 mNm-2s, density
= 998 kg/m³. Calculate the total pressure drop due to friction when
the flow is 3500kg/h.

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