POLITICAL SYTEM AND

2.1(a)
POLITICAL DECISION
MAKING

Political Economy of Education

M.Ed. Semester II
What is a system?
 What is a “SYSTEM”?

A system is a set of two or more interrelated elements with the

following properties:

1. Each element has an effect on the functioning of the whole.

2. Each element is affected by at least one other element in

the system.

3. All possible subgroups of elements also have the first two

properties.
•a set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an
interconnecting network; a complex whole. "the state railway system”

•a set of principles or procedures according to which something is done;

an organized scheme or method. "a multiparty system of government”

•Von Bertalanfy is of the view that system is nothing else but such facts
which are close with each other under the influence of interactions.

•a system includes all actions which are inter-connected, influence as

well as are being influenced by each other.
Political System
 POLITICAL SYSTEM

• A political system defines the process for making official government

decisions.
• Friedrich has defined political system by saying that, “When several
parts of that are different and distinct from each other compose a
whole bearing, a defined functional relation to each other, which
establishes a mutual dependence of these parts upon each other, so
that the destruction of one entails the destruction of the whole,
then such a constellation shall be called a system”.
According to Almond and Powell, “The political system includes not
only governmental institutions such as legislatures, court and
administrative agencies but all structures in their political aspects.”

No political system, both in the East as well as West, is by nature and

character static but always dynamic. In fact, dynamism is one of the
most important and universal characteristic of a political system.
Political system is the basis of all political activities in a state. It is
immaterial whether the system is parliamentary democracy, absolute
dictatorship or an enlightened monarchy. But once the system has been
introduced, whether with willing co-operation of the people or imposed
from above, those in power and authority wish to maintain that at all
costs.

In the words of Robert Dahl, “Whether he likes it or not, virtually no one is

completely beyond the reach of some kind of political system.” According
to him every one is involved to some extent at some stage in some kind of
political system, both willingly or unwillingly.
The idea of system started quite sometime back in natural
sciences when natural scientists started using this word to
establish and stress their view point. Even among the natural
scientists, physicists and biologists than the others very much
used this word.
Among the social scientists Anthropologists as well as
Sociologists started using this term and in fact they borrowed
this from natural scientists. In Political Science, Political
Scientists used this term only in the fifties of this century.
It was only in 1956 that the Society for the Advancement of
General System Research was set up. But first important attempt
to study political systems on the basis of systems theory was made
by David Easton and Gabriel Almond.

The others who made some efforts in this regard included

Mitchell, Karl Deutsch, Richard Synder and Kaplan. In this way
system concept became an integral part of political science. In the
view of David Easton, system concept is an important event of
20th century in Political Science.
Meaning And Definitions of
Political System
 MEANING OF POLITICAL SYSTEM

•A political system is a system of politics and government. It is usually

compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other
social systems.
• Legal system refers to a procedure or process for interpreting and enforcing
the law. It elaborates the rights and responsibilities in a variety of ways.
Three major legal systems of the world consist of civil law, common law and
religious law.
• An economic system (also economic order) is a system of production,
resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within a society or
a given geographic area.
A cultural system, is the interaction of different elements in culture. While a
cultural system is very different from a social system, sometimes both systems
together are referred to as the sociocultural system. Good examples of cultural
systems are all around us. You can look at the elements that govern the way
people construe ideas and behaviors, and collectively, these elements make up a
cultural system.

Social system refers to a society's framework, consisting of the various

relationships between people and groups that direct and set limits on human
behavior. It is an organization of individuals into groups or structures that have
different functions, characteristics, origin or status. For example, a social system
might break a larger population down into family groups, races, religious
affiliations, gender, wealth categories and social classes.
 DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL SYSTEM
•A political system is a complete set of institutions, interest
groups (such as political parties, trade unions, lobby groups),
the relationships between those institutions and the political
norms and rules that govern their functions (constitution,
election law).
•A political system is composed of the members of a social
organization (group) who are in power.
•A political system is a system that necessarily has two
properties: a set of interdependent components and
boundaries toward the environment with which it interacts.
A political system is a concept in which theoretically regarded as a
way of the government makes a policy and also to make them more
organized in their administration.

A political system is one that ensures the maintaining of order and

rationality in the society and at the same time makes it possible for
some other institutions to also have their grievances and complaints
put across in the course of social existence.
Robert Dahl is of the view that, “A political system is any persistent pattern
of human relationship that involves to a significant extent power, rule or
authority.”
David Easton in his A Frame-Work of Political Analysis has said that, “A
political system is a set of interaction, abstracted from the totality of the
social behaviour through which values are authoritatively allocated for a
society.”
characteristics of political
system
 CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL SYSTEM

(1) Use or threat of use of legal force:

The first characteristic of political system is that it allows the legal
authority to use force. Legitimate use of force is a distinct feature
of political system, giving it a special quality and importance, and
its unity as a system. When the state or governments extends
certain facilities then at the same time it possesses power to
impose taxes upon the people and punish those who violate those
orders.
(2) Interactions:
Political system is that system of interactions to be found in all
independent societies which perform the functions of integration
and adaptation.
Political system not only includes governmental institutions such as
legislatures, executives, courts, administrative agencies but all
structures in their political aspect. Among these are included formal
organisations like parties, interest groups, and media of
communication; traditional structures such as kinship ties, caste
groupings anomic phenomena such as associations, riots an
demonstrations.
(3) Interdependence of Parts:
Interdependence means that when the properties of one component
in a system change, all the other components and the system as a
whole are affected.
In political system the political parties having a wider base and mass
media change the performance of all other structures of the system
and affect the general working of the system.
Not only that but the emergence of trade unions and pressure groups
affect the working of the political parties, the electoral process, the
legislature, the bureaucracy and the judicial system.
(4) Comprehensiveness:
Comprehensiveness means a system in which all such structures
are included which help in smooth running of the system.
Political System is comprehensive because it includes all the
interactions from the formal as well as informal institutions in
the society. For example, it includes the interaction of
regionalism, religious upheavals, inflation, party-politics, tactics
of pressure groups and social changes brought about by
modernisation.
(5) Change of Boundary:
Each system has some beginning or end. Though it is easy to fix such a limit in the
case of natural and physical systems, yet it is not possible to do so in the case of
social system, or in so far as human beings are concerned. It is because roles usually
overlap each-other.
The political system consists of interacting roles of nationals, subjects, voters, the
legislators, bureaucrats and judges. The same individuals who perform role in social
and economic system also play their notable role in political systems.
The boundaries of political system are always subject to large number of fluctuations
and keep on changing. These immensely increase when there is war or there are
elections. Pressure groups, lobbies and economic as well as political fluctuations very
much influence boundaries. It, therefore, becomes difficult to find out where a
person begins or ends his actions and activities.
However Almond has given yet another set of characteristics
of a political system. These are:

(1) There is universality of political system. It means that political

system exists everywhere.

(2) Every political system performs the same functions, though there
may be differences in the different political systems and their structures.
(3) Every political system has some structures. It is possible that there may be
some specialised structures which may perform more functions than the less
specialised structures.

(4) Every political system is mixed in the sense of culture because the system
can be more advanced or less advanced.

(5) Every political system is multi-functional and performs a number of

functions irrespective of the degree of specialisation.
Functions of political systems
 two types of
functions

(2) Output functions

(1)Input functions
(Governmental Functions)
(political functions)
1. INPUT FUNCTIONS:

• classified By David Easton

Demands
Input functions

Supports.
Almonds and Powell classify Demands into:
(1)Allocation of goods and services such as demands for more
wages and fixation of working hours, opening of educational
institutions, provision of recreational facilities, roads and
transportation;

(2) Participation in the political system, such as the right to vote, to

hold office, to petition Government bodies and officials, and to
organise political associations such as pressure groups and political
parties.

(3) Regulation of behaviour such as provision for public safety,

control over markets and rules pertaining to marriage, health and
sanitation.

(4) Communication and information, such as demands for the

affirmation of norms ,the communication of policy intent from
Similarly, the examples of supports which the people get in the political system
are:
(1) Material support such as the payment of taxes or other levies and rendering
services as labour on public works or military services;

(2) Attention paid to Government communications and the manifestation of respect

to public authority, symbols and ceremonials.

(3) Obedience to laws and regulations.

(4) Participatory supports such as voting political discussion, and other forms of
political activity:
 2. OUTPUT FUNCTIONS

These are the functions performed by the Government in

response to the input (political functions):
(1) Rule-making
(2) Rule Application
(3) Rule Adjudication
(1) Rule-making:-
• Rule-making was previously known as legislation. Rule-making
has been preferred over legislation because it refers to a
specialised structure and explicit process as legislation. Rule-
making goes on in every type of government whether democracy,
dictatorship or monarchy.
• Now-a-days in a democratic set-up the rule-making power is
exercised by the legislature or parliament.
(2) Rule Application:-
• Rule making was previously known as the execution. The rules made
by the legislature or the Executive are enforced by the bureaucracy,
therefore its role and importance have considerably increased.
• Moreover, rule application also implies that the established goal:, of
the society are fulfilled. It also sees their interaction of the laws on
the society. Effective implementation of the laws can fulfil the
present laws and help in achieving new targets.
(3) Rule Adjudication:-
Rule adjudication was previously known as judicial functions,
it is the duty of the judiciary to interpret the laws and punish
the guilty .judiciary also resolves the conflicts between the
government and citizens and the citizens themselves.
 Feedback Process

In a political system there is also a feedback process by which

decision makers in a system try to find out reaction of their
decisions and the extent of problems which the decisions have
created or solved in any way. Efforts are also made to find out
how can solution to existing problems be found out.
Since a political decision can create many upheavals and
sensations, both knowingly and unknowingly. It is essential
that a good feedback system should try both to find out and
analyse these as well. This will make the authorities realise
the gravity of the situation and make them find out a
solution to new problems, which otherwise would have
remained ignored.
Stresses and strain on the system
From stresses we mean challenges which do not allow a system to proceed
smoothly but create hindrances on its way. Sometimes, these hindrances are
so strong that these change the very course of the system itself.

Internal sources of stresses arise because goods and services are always
available in a limited quantity and numbers.
Since everybody wants to enjoy political power and make its maximum use,
therefore, in every society whether that is less or more developed there is a
race to control political power. On account of this at times there are social
imbalances and political system is forced to interfere to set the system in order
and to see that imbalances are removed. It is then said that the system is under
heavy strains.
Sometimes stresses and pressures are also put on account of external
factors. In India e.g., every citizen wants to have same facilities, comforts
and enjoyments which the people in the west already enjoy.
Though these concern primarily with economic system, yet simultaneously
these very much stress the whole political system of the country, because
both cannot be separated from each-other. Similarly when a neighbouring
country procures or manufactures deadly war weapons, the whole political
system comes under strains and stresses and national policies get
changed..In addition, whole budgetary system gets disturbed.
When political system is said to have failed or bowed before stresses, by this
we mean to say that under internal or external pressures it has either
completely broken down or that in that certain basic and fundamental changes
have come.

There is nothing like absolute stability in any political system every system
always comes under strains. Sometimes there are more stresses and strains
whereas at other times these are less but strains are bound to be there.

These are unavoidable. It is just possible that the stresses may be brought
under control by those who are in authority but even then these also bring
certain changes.
Sometimes even under heavy strains a system can take some
decisions but it is just possible that it may not be possible to
implement these due to circumstances prevailing at that time.
In other words, a good system is one which is not only capable
of taking decisions, but should also be capable of getting these
implemented. When the system cannot get the decision
implemented it can be said that is under heavy strains.
Then comes the next question, namely, how to find out whether and
to which extent decisions taken in the form of output have helped in
solving problems and what support the decisions have got from the
people and also what still remains to be done to meet such demands
which have remained un-met or are likely to be put on the system.
Such finding is very essential for the system as a whole because that
alone enables the system to take precautionary measures well in
advance. With the help of far-sightedness it becomes possible to
successfully deal with the situation. Success of a political leader very
much depends on his far-sightedness in this regard.
Interest Articulation
 In order to protect their own interests members of political system try to
put forth their demands. The way in which these are put and presented
are known as ‘interest articulation’.

 usually done in several ways e.g., Institutional Interest Groups like

political executives, bureaucracies, armies, etc.

 Interest articulation can be both definite as well as indefinite.

 When the demands are put in a clear and specific manner it is called
definite articulation. But when the people make slogans without any
clear and concrete programmes then the interest articulation is
indefinite.
One important function of political system is to enact
laws. In our present democratic set up and system
law making task is completed at different levels.
Quite often even bureaucracy initiates steps which
ultimately lead to law making. In fact, law making
process has become so difficult and complex that
initiative can come from any source.
Then another function of the government is that of
enforcement of laws enacted and this function is very
much increasing these days. It is also becoming very
difficult and complex. For this, of course, several
causes are responsible.
In this way a system is a very complex and complicated
one and it is very difficult to change it. It can sometimes
be very much overhauled while at other times the
changes brought about are not very far-reaching. But it is
difficult to imagine of a system, which altogether gets
changed and replaced by a new one.
 The term “decision-making”, as a particular term in the management, appeared in the
1950s in the United States.

 American scholar Herbert A. Simon was the first to use the concept of “decision-making” in
the book Administrative Behaviour: a Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative
Organization published in 1947. Since then, “decision-making” has been widely used
worldwide.

 However, as for the specific definition of decision-making, he did not give a fixed answer.
Therefore, many scholars have interpreted the meaning of decision-making from different
perspectives. Some believe that decision-making is to develop policies and strategies; some
suggest that decision-making is to make a decision, that is, management as management is
decision-making; some propose that decision-making is comparison and selection;
decision-making refers to all activities in which people try to determine the goal of the
behaviour.
• Decision making is the act of
choosing one alternative from
among a set of alternatives.

• We have to first decide that a

decision has to be made and then
secondly identify a set of feasible
alternatives before we select one.
Haynes & Massie : “Decision-making is a process of selection from a
set of alternative courses of action, which is thought to fulfill the
objectives of the decision problem more satisfactorily than others.”

Weihrich Koonz : “DM is the selection of core of action from

alternatives. It is the core of planning.”

Decision making can be regarded as the cognitive process resulting

in the selection of a course of action among several alternatives.
Every decision making process produces a final choice.
 Decision-making is a common behaviour present in the economic,
political and daily life and is a form of practice frequently occurring in
management activities.

 Decision-making is needed whenever an individual or an organization

(private or public) is faced with a situation of selecting an optimal (or
best in view of certain objectives) course of action from among several
available alternatives.

 Decision-making means the decision. Its purpose is to achieve a specific

goal and it is a process to make a decision for future actions according
to the objective conditions and based on the possession of certain
information and experiences to use appropriate techniques and
methods and to conduct scientific analysis, calculation and judgment of
the merits of factors associated with the goals.
 DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

• Decision-Making Process includes:

• recognizing and

defining the
• nature
choosingof a decision
the situation
[most
• identifying alternatives
‘best’ effective]
alternative and
• putting it into practice.
DECISION MAKING STEPS
IMPORTANCE OF DECISION MAKING

• Better utilisation of resources

• People’s benefits /Business growth
• Achieving objectives
• Increases efficiency
• Facilitates innovation
• Solving problems
Everyday a manager has to make hundreds of decisions in the
organization. There are different conditions in which decisions are
made. Managers sometimes have an almost perfect understanding
of conditions surrounding a decision, but in other situations they
may have little information about those conditions. At the same
time, the decision taken by the managers at present will also have
an effect on future. For this purpose, the decision-making process
involves the visualization of the conditions that may be present in
future.
So, the decision maker must know the conditions under which
decisions are to be made. Generally, the decision maker makes
decision under the condition of certainty, risk and uncertainty.
There are three conditions that managers may face as they make
decisions. They are (1) Certainty, (2) Risk, and (3) Uncertainty.
DECISION MAKING UNDER CERTAINTY

A state of certainty exists when a decision maker knows,

with reasonable certainty, what the alternatives are and
what conditions are associated with each alternative.
All the information the decision maker needs is fully
available
Very few organizational decisions, however, are made
under these conditions.
DECISION MAKING UNDER RISK

A state of risk exists when a decision maker makes

decisions under a condition in which the
availability of each alternative and its potential
payoffs and costs are all associated with
probability estimate.

Good information about alternatives is available

Future outcomes associated with each alternative are

subject to chance

Decisions such as these are based on past

experiences, relevant information, the advice of
others and one’s own judgment.
DECISION MAKING UNDER
UNCERTAINTY
A state of uncertainty exists when a
decision maker does not know all of
the alternatives, the risks associated
with each, or the consequences each
alternative is likely to have.

Information about alternatives and future

events is incomplete

Most of the major decision making in

today’s organizations is done under
these conditions.

Intuition, judgment and experience

always play major roles in the decision-
making process under these
conditions.
 TYPES OF DECISION MAKING
1. Programmed and non-programmed decisions:
• Programmed decisions are concerned with the problems of repetitive nature or routine type
matters.A standard procedure is followed for tackling such problems. These decisions are taken
generally by lower level managers. Decisions of this type may pertain to e.g. purchase of raw
material, granting leave to an employee and supply of goods and implements to the employees, etc.
• Non-programmed decisions relate to difficult situations for which there is no easy solution.
• These matters are very important for the organisation. For example, opening of a new branch of the
organisation or a large number of employees absenting from the organisation or introducing new
product in the market, etc., are the decisions which are normally taken at the higher level.
2. Routine and strategic decisions:
Routine decisions are related to the general functioning of the
organisation. They do not require much evaluation and analysis and can
be taken quickly. Ample powers are delegated to lower ranks to take these
decisions within the broad policy structure of the organisation.
Strategic decisions are important which affect objectives, organisational
goals and other important policy matters. These decisions usually involve
huge investments or funds. These are non-repetitive in nature and are
taken after careful analysis and evaluation of many alternatives. These
decisions are taken at the higher level of management.
3. Tactical (Policy) and operational decisions:
Decisions pertaining to various policy matters of the organisation are
policy decisions. These are taken by the top management and have long
term impact on the functioning of the concern. For example, decisions
regarding location of plant, volume of production and channels of
distribution (Tactical) policies, etc. are policy decisions. Operating
decisions relate to day-to-day functioning or operations of business.
Middle and lower level managers take these decisions.
An example may be taken to distinguish these decisions. Decisions
concerning payment of bonus to employees are a policy decision. On the
other hand if bonus is to be given to the employees, calculation of bonus
in respect of each employee is an operating decision.
4. Organisational and personal decisions:
When an individual takes decision as an executive in the official
capacity, it is known as organisational decision. If decision is
taken by the executive in the personal capacity (thereby
affecting his personal life), it is known as personal decision.
Sometimes these decisions may affect functioning of the
organisation also. For example, if an executive leaves the
organisation, it may affect the organisation. The authority of
taking organizational decisions may be delegated, whereas
personal decisions cannot be delegated
5. Major and minor decisions:
Another classification of decisions is major and minor.
Decision pertaining to purchase of new factory premises is
a major decision. Major decisions are taken by top
management. Purchase of office stationery is a minor
decision which can be taken by office superintendent.
6. Individual and group decisions:
When the decision is taken by a single individual, it is known as individual
decision. Usually routine type decisions are taken by individuals within the
broad policy framework of the organisation.
Group decisions are taken by group of individuals constituted in the form of a
standing committee. Generally very important and pertinent matters for the
organisation are referred to this committee. The main aim in taking group
decisions is the involvement of maximum number of individuals in the process
of decision- making.
 POLITICAL DECISION-MAKING
• Political decision-making means a country’s political parties, leaders or
leadership compare and select implementing principles and approaches and
means to achieve the target in political practical activities for the purpose,
principles and direction of activities.
• Politicaldecision-making refers to the process in which the management
subject such as the government or the main political parties specify and
select the action plan and it is the process of selecting the direction,
objectives, principles, methods and steps of the problem.
The process of political decision-making is a dynamic political
process that is related to the formation and implementation of
major and general decisions of the national, political and social
interest groups. This process is to integrate major and general
decisions regarding national and social interests.

The decision-making of a country includes national overall policy-

making, regional or sector industrial policy-making regarding local
problems.
National decision-making process is not only relevant to the overall
satiation of a country, but also closely linked with various parts of
domestic decision makings. Meanwhile, the national policy-making is also
closely related to the policy-making of social production units. From the
perspective of the content of national policy-making, national decision-
making in general is a process of an infinite loop made up from the
general to the individual and then to the general and from abstract to
concrete and then to abstract. Each end of the loop is general public’s
execution of the decision-making of subjects at all levels.
BASIC FEATURES OF POLITICAL DECISION-MAKING

1. political decision-making is a dynamic process, namely the integration

process of major decisions and general decision regarding national and social
interests;

2. the subjects of political decision-making are national authorities, political

parties and individual decision makers or decision-making participants;
3. the ultimate decision formed by political decision-making is backed up by
national coercive power and is mandatory;

4. political decision-making is affected by system pressure and in the decision-

making process, there might be a certain degree of bias between the final
decision and the goal.
 STEPS OF POLITICAL DECISION MAKING
PROCESS
• The first step is to determine goals. It is the process to clarify
what results are expected to be achieved.
• The second step is to collect and process information. According
to the goal orientation, we collect relevant information, and
analyze and process the information to form an objective and
accurate statistical report.
• The third step is to design the solution. Based on the certain
objective information, we design corresponding alternative
solutions to achieve goals.
The fourth step is to evaluate the effectiveness. Through scientific analysis and
assessment tools, we conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the proposed
alternative solutions, weigh the pros and cons, compare deselection solutions,
rank the deselection solutions and provide views on how to select.

The fifth step is to choose a solution. The decision-making group selects the best
solution to a number of deselection solutions and this is the most critical aspect
in a political decision making process. It determines whether we can achieve the
stated goals at the lowest costs, with most savings, in the shortest time and with
the best results.
The sixth step is to implement the decision and get feedback.
Once the decision is finalized, it will enter the implementation
process. The decision-making group should create the conditions
for the successful implementation of the decision; meanwhile,
based on the feedback in the implementation of the decision,
they should timely make the appropriate adjustments and
corrections of the decision to try to optimize the results.
.
MODELS OR THEORIES OF POLITICAL DECISION MAKING

• There are now many theories which have been put forward to explain
how political and economic decisions are actually taken .
• In these new theories, government is not taken to be a single,
exogenous entity, but is viewed as a collective form of a number of
legislative and institutional groups, such as bureaucrats and political
parties, each of which has its own set of objectives.

• These theories may help us understand why certain policies are in

place, and why others, which are more desirable from an economic
point of view, are not attractive to policy-makers.
One of the main models is the rational choice model, which is based on the
idea that the individual actors in the decision-making process act rationally and
are trying to achieve their own aims in competition with one another.

At the other end of the spectrum is the systems model, which treats the whole
social system as the basic unit for analysis and is concerned with how the
component parts of the system respond to the constraints of the system.
In between the rational choice and the systems models
is the institutions model. Here the emphasis is placed
on the institutions in place in the society and their
influence on the groups pursuing environmental aims.
The institutions in society affect which policies are likely
to be implemented.
 Rational choice theory
 Rational choice theory is an economic principle that states that individuals always make
prudent and logical decisions. These decisions provide people with the greatest benefit or
satisfaction. Most mainstream academic assumptions and theories are based on rational
choice theory.

 Rational choice theory assumes that all people try to actively maximize their advantage in any
situation and therefore consistently try to minimize their losses. The theory is based on the
idea that all humans base their decisions on rational calculations, act with rationality when
choosing, and aim to increase his/her pleasure or profit. Rational choice theory also says that
all complex social phenomena are driven by individual human actions. Therefore, if someone
wants to explain social change or the actions of social institutions, he needs to look at the
rational decisions of the individuals that make up the whole.
Rational choice theory, also called rational action theory or choice theory,
school of thought based on the assumption that individuals choose a
course of action that is most in line with their personal preferences.

Rational choice theory is used to model human decision making,

especially in the context of microeconomics, where it helps economists
better understand the behaviour of a society in terms of individual actions
as explained through rationality, in which choices are consistent because
they are made according to personal preference. Rational choice theory
increasingly is applied to other areas as well, including evolutionary
theory, political science, and warfare.
PROBLEMS IN DECISION MAKING

• Problem of adequate information

• Ensuring participation in decision-
making
• Timely decision
• Communication of decision
• Environment for decision
• Implementation