1

Second order differential equations have a

variety of applications in science and
engineering. However we explore two of them:
The vibration of strings and electric circuits.
1.Mass spring system
To study mechanical vibrations we shall start
with the simple mechanical system consisting
of a coil spring suspended from a rigid support
with a mass attached to the end of the spring.
To analyze this mass-spring system we need
to recall two laws of Physics.
1. Hook’s Law
2. Newton’s second Law of motion 2
(a) Hook’s Law
It states that the spring exerts a restoring
force opposite to the direction of elongation of
the spring and with a magnitude directly
proportional to the amount of elongation. i.e.
spring exerts a restoring force f whose
magnitude is f  kl, where l is the amount of
elongation and k>0 is the spring constant.

3
(b) Newton’s 2nd law of motion
d 2x dx
m 2  ma  F (t , x, )
dt dt
where m is constant.
Where x is the position of mass, dx / dt is the
velocity, and d 2 x / dt 2 is the acceleration of the
mass at time t. Here F the total force acting on
the mass is assumed to depend only on time,
position and velocity

4
Discussion:
First step in the analysis of the mass-spring
system is to choose a coordinate axis in
which to represent the motion of the mass.
For this purpose we observe that the spring
has a certain natural length L when hanging
from its support. Attaching a mass m
elongates the spring and when it comes to
rest (equilibrium), the spring has been
stretched an amount, say , beyond its
natural length.
5
Therefore let denote the displacement of
mass from its equilibrium position, taking
positive when the mass is below its
equilibrium position.
L

m
x(t)

6
Various forces acting on
Mass spring system

7
1. Force of Gravity
The force of gravity F1 is a downward force
with magnitude mg, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity.Hence
F1  mg

8
 2. Restoring Force
The spring exerts a restoring force F2 whose
magnitude is proportional to the elongation of
the spring. From figure we see that the spring
is stretched (x+l) units beyond its natural
length. Hence the magnitude of F2 is k(x+l) ,
where k is the spring constant. Since the
spring exerts pulls upward (in the negative x-
direction). We have

F2  k ( x  l )  kx  kl
9
We should observe that when x=0 i.e. when
the system is at equilibrium, the force of
gravity and the force due to spring balance
each other. Thus
mg  kl
F2  kx  mg

10
3. Damping Force
There is a damping or frictional force acting
on the mass. e.g. this force may be air
resistance or friction due to shock absorber.
In either case we assume that the damping
force is proportional to the magnitude of the
velocity of the mass, but opposite in direction,
i.e.
dx
F3  b b0
dt
Where b is the damping constant given in
units of mass/time or force-time/length. 11
4. External Forces
Any external forces acting on the mass e.g.
magnetic forces will be denoted by F4  f (t )
For simplicity, we assume that these forces
depend only on time and not on the
location of mass and or its velocity.
The total force acting on the mass m is the
sum of all the forces F1 , F2 , F3 , F4
i.e
 dx 
F  t , x,   F1  F2  F3  F4
 dt 
12
 2
d x dx
m 2  mg  kx  mg  b  f (t )
dt dt
2
d x dx
m 2  kx  b  f (t )
dt dt
2
m 2  b  kx  f (t ), x0   , x 0   ,
d x dx
dt dt
(i) If   0 ,   0 the mass starts from a point
below the equilibrium with an upward velocity.
(ii) If   0 ,   0 the mass is released from
rest from a point  units above the equilibrium
position.
13
Case –I Undamped Free case:
For undamped free case we have
b  0, f (t )  0
Then d x 2
m 2  kx  0
dt
2
d x k
2
 x0 (1)
dt m
Let
  k/m
 2
d x
2
 x  0
2
14
dt
The characteristic equation is
m2   2  0
m  i
x  t   c1 cos t  c2 sin t (2)
c1  A sin  (3)
Let
c2  A cos  (4)
Squaring and adding Eqs. (3) and (4) we get
A c 21  c 2 2 (5)
Eq.(2) takes the form
x  t   A sin  t    (6)
Where is A amplitude of the wave and  is
15
phase angle.
  c1 
  tan  
1

 c2 
The quadrant in which  lies is determined by
the signs of c1 and c2 . It is evident from (6)
that the motion of a mass in an undamped,
free system is simply sine wave or simple
harmonic motion..
c1 c2
sin   , cos 
A A
Time Period
Time period and frequency of free vibrations
given by 2 1
T and f 

16
T
Example:
Solve and interpret the Initial –value problem
d 2x
2
 16 x  0, x(0)  10, x(0)  0
dt
Solution:
The mass on a spring pulled down 10 units
below the equilibrium position , holding it until
t=0 then releasing it from rest.
Here k=16, The characteristic equation is,
m  16  0
2

m  4i
x  t   c1 cos 4t  c2 sin 4t 17
 xt   4c1 sin 4t  4c2 cos 4t
Using the initial conditions we have
c1  10 and c 2  0
Therefore solution of the problem is
xt   10 cos 4t where 4

or xt   10 sin  4t  
2
The solution represents a sine wave having
amplitude 10
2 2 
Time period T   
 4 2
This implies that the wave repeats after
every  / 2 interval. 18
Example
For the motion described xt   6 sin 8t  1.816t  by
17

find the first value of time for which the mass

passes through the equilibrium position
heading downward.
Solution:
For the mass to pass through equilibrium
position
putting x  t   0


17
sin  8t  1.816   0
6
 8t  1.816   sin 1
0
8t  1.816t   n n  0,  1,  2,....... 19
For n=1 let
t  t1
 8t1  1.816   
  1.816
 t1   0.166
8
For n=2 let
t  t2
 8t 2  1.816   2
2  1.816
 t2   0.558
8
t 2 is the first time that the mass passes
through x=0 heading downward. 20
Example
The period of free undamped oscillations of a
mass on a spring is  / 4 sec. If the spring
constant is 12 lb/ft, what is the numerical
value of weight ?
Solution
Here k  16, f (t )  0, b  0
d 2x
 2
 16 x  0,
dt
 4   4 
x(t )  c1 cos  t   c2 sin  t
 m   m  21
Here

4 22 m
and T   
m  4/ m 2
But

T Given 
4
 m
 
4 2
1
 m
4
W  mg  32  8lb
1
where g  32ft/sec 2

4 22
Example
A 64lb weight attached to the end of a spring
stretches it 0.32 ft. From a position 8 in. above
the equilibrium position. The weight is given a
downward velocity of 5 ft/s
(a): Find the equation of motion.
(b): What are the amplitude and period of
motion.
(c): How many complete vibrations will the
weight have 3 completed at the end of
seconds?

23
(d): At what time does the weight pass through
the equilibrium position heading downward
for the second time.
(e): At what time does the weight attain its
extreme displacement on either side of the
equilibrium position.
(f): What is the position of the weight at t=3
seconds ?
(g): What is the instantaneous velocity at t=3
seconds ?
24
Solution
W  64 x  0.32
W  mg F  kx
W 64 F 64
m  2 k   200
g 32 x 0.32
d 2x
 2 2  200 x  0,
dt

d 2x
 2
 100 x  0, x  0  -
8
-
2
ft
dt 12 3
x   0  5
25
The characteristic equation is
m  100  0
2

m  10i
And the solution is
x  t   c1 cos10t  c2 sin10t
x  t   10c1 sin10t  10c2 cos10t
By using the initial conditions we get
2 1
c1   and c 2 
3 2
xt    cos10t  sin 10t
2 1

3 2
2 1
Let A sin    and Acos  26
3 2
  A c 1 c 2 2 2 5
6
xt   sin 10t   
5
6
Since sin   0 and cos  0
  lies in fourth quadrant
  tan 1
 c1 / c2   0.927
xt   sin 10t  0.927 
5
(a)
6
5
(b) Amplitude  A  ft
6
2
2 
Time Period  T   
 10 5 27
(c) 1 5
f   cycles / sec
T 
5
3 f  3    15cycles
 
(d)
8tn  0.927   n n  0, 1, 2,...

For n=1, Let t  t1

 10t1  0.927)  
 t1    0.927  0.166
10 28
For n=2 let t  t2
 10t 2  0.927   2
2  0.927
 t2   0.721
10
(e) t  ?
5
When x(t ) 
6

  sin 10t  0.927 

5 5
6 6

 sin 10t  0.927)  1

10t  0.927)  sin 1 1 29
 

0.927
t   2n  1  , n  0, 1, 2,3...
2 10

xt   sin 10(3)  0.927)

5
(f)
6
x(t )  0.597 ft ,
Blow the equilibrium position
x t   10 cos10t  0.927)
5
(g)
6
Putting t=3 we get
x(t )  5.81 ft / sec, upward

30
II. Damped- Free Vibrations
For damped free vibrations f  t   0
d 2x dx (*)
 m
dt 2
b
dt
 kx  0,

The auxiliary equations is

mr  br  k  0,
2

 r  b 1
b 2  4mk , (1)
2m 2m
Here three cases arises,

31
Case. (a): Under damped or Oscillatory
motion
In this case, we have
b  4mk
2

 b  4mk  0.
2

So from (1)
b 1
r  i 4mk  b 2 ,
2m 2m
or r    i ,
b 1
where   , 4mk  b 2

2m 2m 32
Therefore a general solution of Eq. (*) can be
written as
x  t   et C1 cos  t  C2 sin  t  (2)
Letting
C1  A sin  ,
C2  A cos 
Then Eq. (2) will now takes the form
x  t   Ae sin   t    ,
t
(3)
where
C1
A  C  C2
1
2 2
and tan  .
C2
33
It is evident from (3) that is the product of an
exponential factor k
 t
t
Ae  Ae 2 m
called the damping factor and a sine factor
sin   t    that accounts for the oscillatory
motion.
The mass will oscillates with frequency

f 
2
where
4mk  b2
 .
2m
The amplitude of vibration  0 as t   34
Case. (b): Critically damped
In this case, we have
b  4mk
2

 4mk  b  0.
2

So from (1), we obtain

b
r ,
2m 
k
x  t    C1  C2t  e
t
2m

Also lim x  t   0
t 
This means that the motion will eventually
die out as t   35
Note that
A critically damped system converges to
zero faster than any other and without
oscillating. An example of critically damping
is the “door closer” seen on many hinged
door in public buildings. The recoil
mechanisms in most guns are also critically
damped so that they return to their original
position after the recoil due to firing in the
least possible time.

36
Case. (c): Over-Damping
In this case, we have
b 2  4mk
So from (1)
b 1 
r1    b  4mk 
2

2m 2m 
 (4)
b 1
r2    b 2  4mk 
2m 2m 
Therefore the general solution of Eq. (*) will
be of the form
x  t   C1e  C2e
r1t r2t
(5)
37
r2 is negative and since
b  b  4mk ,
2 2

b  b  4mk ,
2

If r1 is also negative. Then from Eq. (5)

lim x  t   0
t 
Again the motion eventually die out.

An over damped door closer will take longer

to close than a critically damped would
38
Example: Assume that the motion of a
spring system with damping is governed by
d 2x
x0  1, x0  0, (1)
dx
m 2  b  25 x  f (t ),
dt dt
Find equation of motion for the cases when
b=8, 10, and 12.
Solution:
The auxiliary equation for the above problem
is,
b 1 2
r  b  100 ,
2 2
Case 1 when b=8 the roots of (2) are 39
 r  4  3i
This is the case of under-damping and the
equation has the form
xt   e 4t c1 cos 3t  c2 sin 3t 
By using the initial conditions we get
c1  1 and c2  4 / 3
 
xt   e
4
  4t
 cos 3t  sin 3t  (3)
 3 
or (4)
xt   e sin 3t   
5  4t
40
3
Where  c1 
  tan    0.64
1

 c2 
Case 2 when b=10
Then there is only one repeated root of
auxiliary equation (2) namely r=-5. This is the
case of critically damping and its solution is

xt   c1  c2 t e 5t

(5)
By using the initial conditions we get
c1  1 and c 2  5
 xt   1  5t e 5t
41
We can see that x(t )  0 for t  1/ 5 and
hence does not cross the t-axis for t>0.
Case 3 when b=12
Then the roots of auxiliary equation (2) are
 6  11. This is the case of over damping and
its solution is
xt   c1e 6 11t
 c2 e 6 11t

By using the initial conditions we get

11  6 11 11  6 11
c1  and c 2 
22 22
 11  6 11  6 11 t  11  6 11  6 11 t
xt    e
  

e

 22   22  (6)
42
Note that:
It is interesting to observe that when the
system is under-damped (b=8), the solution
approaches to zero. The system is critically
damped (b=10) the solution tends to zero as
well. When the system is over-damped (b=12)
the solution goes to zero again. This means
that if the system is under-damped, it not only
oscillates but also dies off slower than if it
were critically damped. Moreover, if the
system ids over-damped, it again dies off
slower than if it were critically damped.
43
Example
A 4 ft spring measures 8 ft long after an 8 lb
weight is attached to it. The medium through
which the weight moves offers a resistance
numerically equal to 2 times the instantan-
eous velocity. Find the equation if the weight
is released from the equilibrium position with a
downward velocity of 5 ft/s. Find the time for
which the weight attains its extreme
displacement from the equilibrium position.
What is the position of the weight at this
instant ?
44
Solution
x  4 ft. F  kx
W 8 k 2
8 1
 m  Also b  2
32 4
1 d 2x dx
2
 2  2 x ,
4 dt dt
x  0   0, x  0   5 ft ,

The characteristic equation is

m  4 2m  8  0
2
45
 m  2 2 repeated roots

xt   c1  c2t e 2 2t

By using the initial conditions we get

c1  0 and c 2  5

 xt   5te 2 2t

xt   5e 2 2t
1  2 2t 

46
If x  t   0 then t  2 / 4sec

and extreme displacement is

2  2 2 42
xt   5 e
4
5 2 1
 x e feet
4

47