Human Anatomy

HCS 212

Chapter 2

Foundations:
The Cell

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 Introduction

• There are trillions of cells in the body

– Cells are the structural “building blocks” of all
plants and animals
– Cells are produced by the division of preexisting
cells
– Cells form all the structures in the body
– Cells perform all vital functions of the body

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 Introduction

• There are two types of cells in the body:

– Sex cells
• Sperm in males and oocytes in females
– Somatic cells
• All the other cells in the body that are not sex cells

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 The Study of Cells

• Cytology
– Study of cells
• Common techniques used:
– Light microscopy (LM)
– Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
– Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

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 The Study of Cells

• Light Microscopy
– Magnification up to 1000 times
– Sometimes 2000 maximum
• Transmission Electron Microscopy
– Magnifies more than light microscopy
• Scanning Electron Microscopy
– Shows three-dimensional images

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 Figure 2.1a Different Techniques, Different Perspectives

Cells as seen in transmission

Cells as seen in light microscopy electron microscopy (intestinal
(respiratory tract) tract)

LM  400

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 Figure 2.1c Different Techniques, Different Perspectives

SEM  14,000

Cells as seen in scanning

electron microscopy
(respiratory tract)
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 Figure 2.2 The Diversity of Cells in the Body

The diversity of the cells of the body

The following figure shows the proportion of cell size of the variety of cells in the body

Cells lining
Blood
intestinal tract
cells
Smooth
muscle
cell
Bone
cell

Neuron in
brain
Fat cell

Oocyte Sperm

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 Cellular Anatomy

• The cell consists of:

– Cytoplasm
• Cytosol
• Organelles
– Plasmalemma
• Cell membrane

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 Figure 2.4 A Flowchart for the Study of Cell Structure

THE CELL

CYTOPLASM PLASMALEMMA

CYTOSOL ORGANELLES

NONMEMBRANOUS MEMBRANOUS
ORGANELLES ORGANELLES
• Cytoskeleton • Mitochondria
• Microvilli • Nucleus
• Centrioles • Endoplasmic
• Cilia reticulum
• Flagella • Golgi apparatus
• Ribosomes • Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Anatomical structures of the cell

– Organelles
• Nonmembranous organelles
• Membranous organelles

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Organelles of the cell

– Nonmembranous organelles
• Cytoskeleton
• Microvilli
• Centrioles
• Cilia
• Flagella
• Ribosomes

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 Figure 2.3 Anatomy of a Typical Cell

Microvilli

Secretory
vesicles

Cytosol
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Centrosome
Centriole
Peroxisome
Chromatin
Nucleoplasm
Nucleolus Nuclear pores

Smooth
Nuclear envelope
endoplasmic
surrounding nucleus
reticulum
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Fixed ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Free ribosomes

Plasmalemma

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 Table 2.1 Anatomy of a Representative Cell (Part 1 of 2)

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Organelles of the cell

– Membranous organelles
• Mitochondria
• Nucleus
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes

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 Figure 2.3 Anatomy of a Typical Cell

Microvilli

Secretory
vesicles

Cytosol
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Centrosome
Centriole
Peroxisome
Chromatin
Nucleoplasm
Nucleolus Nuclear pores

Smooth
Nuclear envelope
endoplasmic
surrounding nucleus
reticulum
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Fixed ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Free ribosomes

Plasmalemma

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 Table 2.1-2 Anatomy of a Representative Cell (Part 2 of 2)

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Plasmalemma
– A cell membrane composed of:
• Phospholipids
• Glycolipids
• Protein
• Cholesterol

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 Table 2.1 Anatomy of a Representative Cell (Part 1 of 2)

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 Figure 2.5 The Plasmalemma

Hydrophilic
heads
Hydrophobic
tails
Cholesterol

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

Glycolipids Phospholipid Integral protein Integral

of glycocalyx bilayer with channel glycoproteins
Hydrophobic
tails
The phospholipid bilayer

Cholesterol
Peripheral Hydrophilic
proteins heads
Gated Cytoskeleton
channel  2 nm (Microfilaments)
CYTOPLASM

The plasmalemma

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Functions of the Plasmalemma

– Cell membrane (also called phospholipid bilayer)
– Major functions:
• Physical isolation
• Regulation of exchange with the environment
(permeability)
• Sensitivity
• Structural support

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membrane permeability of the plasmalemma

– Passive processes
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitative diffusion

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 Figure 2.6 Diffusion across Plasmalemmae
Lipids, lipid-soluble Water, small water-
molecules, and soluble soluble molecules,
gases (O2 and CO2) can and ions diffuse
diffuse across the lipid through membrane
bilayer of the plasmalemma. channels.
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Channel
Plasmalemma protein

Large molecules that

cannot fit through the
membrane channels
and cannot diffuse CYTOPLASM
through the membrane
lipids can only cross
the plasmalemma
when transported by a
carrier mechanism.

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membrane permeability of the plasmalemma

– Active processes
– Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Plasmalemma: Active processes

– Uses enzymes and carrier proteins
• Ion pumps use energy to transport charged particles
such as Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+
• An ion pump that moves two ions simultaneously in
opposite directions is called an exchange pump.

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Plasmalemma: Endocytosis
– Phagocytosis: “cell eating”
– Pinocytosis: “cell drinking”
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
• Ligands will bind specific molecules to the receptors
thereby allowing only specific molecules to enter the
cell

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 Figure 2.7 Phagocytosis
Bacterium
Pseudopodium Phagocytosis

Phagosome
Lysosome

Phagosome
fuses with a
lysosome

Secondary
lysosome
Golgi
apparatus

Exocytosis
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 Figure 2.8a Receptor–Mediated Endocytosis

Ligands
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Ligands binding
Target molecules (ligands) bind to
to receptors
receptors in plasmalemma.

Exocytosis Areas coated with ligands form deep

Endocytosis pockets in plasmalemma surface.
Ligand
receptors
Pockets pinch off, forming
endosomes known as coated
vesicles.

Coated Coated vesicles fuse with primary

vesicle lysosomes to form secondary
lysosomes.
CYTOPLASM

Ligands are removed and

absorbed into the cytoplasm.

The lysosomal and endosomal

membranes separate.

Primary The endosome fuses with the

lysosome plasmalemma, and the receptors are
again available for ligand binding.

Ligands Secondary
removed lysosome

Steps in receptor-mediated endocytosis

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 Figure 2.8 Receptor–Mediated Endocytosis

Early vesicle
formation
Plasmalemma

Cytoplasm Completed
vesicle

TEMs  60,000

Electron micrographs showing vesicle formation in receptor-mediated endocytosis

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 Table 2.2 Summary of Mechanisms Involved in Movement across Plasmalemmae

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Nonmembranous Organelles (details)

– Microfilaments
• Anchor cytoskeleton to integral proteins
• Stabilize the position of membrane proteins
• Anchor plasmalemma to the cytoplasm
• Produce movement of the cell
– Intermediate filaments
• Provide strength
• Stabilize organelle position
• Transport material within the cytosol
– Thick filaments
• Found in muscle cells: involved in muscle contraction
– Microtubules
• Involved in the formation of centrioles, which are involved in cell
reproduction

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 Figure 2.9 The Cytoskeleton

Microvilli

Microfilaments

Plasmalemma
SEM  30,000

A SEM image of the microfilaments

and microvilli of an intestinal cell
Terminal web

Mitochondrion

Intermediate
filaments

Endoplasmic
reticulum

The cytoskeleton provides strength Microtubule

and structural support for the cell
and its organelles. Interactions
between cytoskeletal elements are Secretory
LM  3200
also important in moving organelles vesicle
and in changing the shape of the Microtubules in a living cell, as
cell. seen after special fluorescent
labeling

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Nonmembranous Organelles (details)

– Examples of microtubules
• Centrioles
• Cilia
• Flagella

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 Figure 2.10 Centrioles and Cilia

Microtubules

Plasmalemma

A centriole consists Microtubules

of nine microtubule
triplets (9  0 array).
The centrosome
contains a pair of
centrioles oriented at
right angles to one
another. Basal body

A cilium contains nine pairs of

microtubules surrounding a central pair
(9  2 array).

Power stroke Return stroke

A single cilium swings forward and then

returns to its original position. During
the power stroke, the cilium is relatively
TEM  240,000 stiff, but during the return stroke, it
bends and moves parallel to the cell
surface.

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 Table 2.3 A Comparison of Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Nonmembranous Organelles (details)

– Ribosomes
• Free ribosomes: float in the cytoplasm
• Fixed ribosomes: attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum
• Both are involved in producing protein

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 Figure 2.11 Ribosomes

Nucleus Free ribosomes

Small ribosomal
subunit

Large ribosomal
subunit

Endoplasmic
reticulum with
attached fixed
ribosomes An individual ribosome,
consisting of small and
TEM  73,600 large subunits

Both free and fixed ribosomes can

be seen in the cytoplasm of this cell.

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Double-membraned organelles
• Mitochondria: produce ATP
• Nucleus: contains chromosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum: network of hollow tubes
• Golgi apparatus: modifies protein
• Lysosomes: contain cellular digestive enzymes
• Peroxisomes: contain catalase to break down hydrogen
peroxide

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Mitochondria
• Consist of cristae
• Consist of mitochondrial matrix
• Produce ATP

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 Figure 2.12 Mitochondria

Inner membrane Cytoplasm

of cell Cristae Matrix

Organic molecules
and O2

Outer
CO2 membrane
ATP

Matrix Cristae Enzymes

TEM  61,776

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Nucleus: control center of the cell
• Nucleoplasm
• Nuclear envelope
• Perinuclear space
• Nuclear pores
• Nuclear matrix

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 Figure 2.13ab The Nucleus

Perinuclear
space
Nucleoplasm

Chromatin

Nucleolus

Nuclear envelope

Nuclear pores

TEM  4828

TEM showing important nuclear structures

Nuclear envelope

Perinuclear space

Nuclear pore

A nuclear pore and the

perinuclear space

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 Figure 2.13c The Nucleus

Inner membrane of
nuclear envelope
Broken edge of
outer membrane
Outer membrane of
nuclear envelope

SEM  9240

The cell seen in this SEM was frozen and then

broken apart so that internal structures could be
seen. This technique, called freeze-fracture,
provides a unique perspective on the internal
organization of cells. The nuclear envelope and
nuclear pores are visible; the fracturing process
broke away part of the outer membrane of the
nuclear envelope, and the cut edge of the
nucleus can be seen.
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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles: Nucleus

• Chromosomes:
– DNA wrapped around proteins called histones
• Nucleosomes
• Chromatin

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 Figure 2.14 Chromosome Structure

Nucleosome

Histones DNA double

Chromatin in nucleus
helix

Nucleus of nondividing cell In cells that are not

dividing, the
nucleosomes are loosely
coiled, forming a tangle
of fine filaments known
as chromatin.

Supercoiled
region

Dividing cell
Visible chromosome
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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– There are two types
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

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 Figure 2.15 The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough endoplasmic
reticulum with
Ribosomes fixed (attached)
ribosomes

Free
ribosomes

Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Endoplasmic TEM  11,000

Reticulum

Cisternae

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Consists of fixed ribosomes
• Proteins enter the ER

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Synthesizes lipids, steroids, and carbohydrates
• Storage of calcium ions
• Detoxification of toxins

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Golgi apparatus
• Synthesis and packaging of secretions
• Packaging of enzymes (modifies protein)
• Renewal and modification of the plasmalemma

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 Figure 2.16a The Golgi Apparatus

Vesicles

Maturing
(trans) face

Forming
(cis) face

TEM  83,520

A sectional view of the Golgi

apparatus of an active secretory cell
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 Figure 2.16b The Golgi Apparatus

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

CYTOSOL
Membrane
renewal
vesicles
Lysosome

Secretory
Cisternae vesicle

Maturing
(trans) face
This diagram shows the functional link between the
ER and the Golgi apparatus. Golgi structure has been
simplified to clarify the relationships between the
membranes. Transport vesicles carry the secretory
product from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi
apparatus, and transfer vesicles move membrane
and materials between the Golgi cisternae. At the Forming
maturing face, three functional categories of vesicles (cis) face
develop. Secretory vesicles carry the secretion from Transport
the Golgi to the cell surface, where exocytosis vesicle
releases the contents into the extracellular fluid.
Other vesicles add surface area and integral proteins
to the plasmalemma. Lysosomes, which remain in
the cytoplasm, are vesicles filled with enzymes.
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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Lysosomes
• Fuse with phagosomes to digest solid materials
• Recycle damaged organelles
• Sometimes rupture, thus killing the entire cell (called
autolysis)

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 Figure 2.17 Lysosomal Functions

Waste products and debris are then ejected from the

cell when the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.
Function 1: A primary
Endocytosis
lysosome may fuse with
the membrane of another
organelle, such as a
mitochondrion, forming a
Extracellular secondary lysosome.
solid or fluid

Function 2: A secondary
lysosome may also form
As the materials when a primary lysosome
or pathogens are fuses with a vesicle
Primary
broken down, containing fluid or solid
lysosomes
nutrients are materials from outside the
contain
absorbed. cell.
inactive
As digestion enzymes.
occurs, nutrients
are reabsorbed for
recycling.
Function 3: The lysosomal
membrane breaks down
following injury to, or death
of, the cell. The digestive
enzymes then attack the
Golgi cytoplasm in a destructive
apparatus process known as
autolysis. For this reason
lysosomes are sometimes
called “suicide packets.”

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membranous Organelles (details)

– Peroxisomes
• Consist of catalase
• Abundant in liver cells
• Convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxidants

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 Cellular Anatomy

• Membrane flow
– This is the continuous movement and recycling of
the cell membrane
• Transport vesicles connect the endoplasmic reticulum
with the Golgi apparatus
• Secretory vesicles connect the Golgi apparatus with the
plasmalemma

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 Intercellular Attachment

• Examples of Intercellular Attachment:

– Communicating junctions
– Adhering junctions
• Tight junctions
• Anchoring junctions

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 Figure 2.18ab Cell Attachments (Part 1 of 4)

Tight junction

Zonula adherens
Terminal web
Embedded
Button
proteins
desmosome
(connexons)
Communicating
junction
Communicating junctions permit Anchoring junction
the free diffusion of ions and small
molecules between two cells.

Hemidesmosome

A diagrammatic view of an
epithelial cell shows the
major types of intercellular
connections.

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 Figure 2.18ac Cell Attachments (Part 2 of 4)

Tight junction
Interlocking
junctional
proteins
Tight junction

Zonula adherens
Terminal web
Button
desmosome
Communicating Zonula
junction adherens
Anchoring junction

A tight junction is formed by the

fusion of the outer layers of two
Hemidesmosome plasmalemmae. Tight junctions
prevent the diffusion of fluids and
A diagrammatic view of an solutes between the cells.
epithelial cell shows the
major types of intercellular
connections.

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 Figure 2.18ad Cell Attachments (Part 3 of 4)
Tight junction

Zonula adherens
Terminal web
Button
desmosome
Communicating
junction
Anchoring junction

Hemidesmosome

A diagrammatic view of an
epithelial cell shows the
major types of intercellular
connections. Intermediate
filaments
(cytokeratin)

Anchoring junctions attach Cell adhesion

one cell to another. A macula molecules
adherens has a more (CAMs)
organized network of Dense area
intermediate filaments. An
adhesion belt is a form of
anchoring junction that
encircles the cell. This complex Intercellular
is tied to the microfilaments of cement
the terminal web.
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 The Cell Life Cycle

• Cell reproduction consists of special events

– Interphase
– Mitosis
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
– Cytokinesis
• Overlaps with anaphase and telophase

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 The Cell Life Cycle

• Cell reproduction (Interphase)

– Everything inside the cell is duplicating
– Consists of G1, S, and G2 phases
• G1: duplication of organelles and protein synthesis
• S: DNA replication
• G2: protein synthesis

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 Figure 2.20 DNA Replication

DNA polymerase
Segment 2 DNA nucleotide
KEY Segment 1
Adenine DNA
polymerase
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine

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 The Cell Life Cycle

• Cell Reproduction (Mitosis)

– Prophase
• The first phase of mitosis
– Metaphase
• Paired chromatids line up in the middle of the nuclear
region
– Anaphase
• Paired chromatids separate to opposite poles of the cell
– Telophase
• Two new nuclear membranes begin to form

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 The Cell Life Cycle

• Cell Reproduction (Cytokinesis)

– Cell membrane begins to invaginate, thus forming
two new cells
• Many times this phase actually begins during anaphase
• This is the conclusion of cell reproduction

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 Figure 2.19 The Cell Life Cycle

S
DNA
INTERPHASE replication,
synthesis
of
histones G2
G1 Protein
Normal synthesis
cell functions THE
plus cell growth, CELL
duplication of CYCLE
organelles,
protein
synthesis M

MITOSIS AND
CYTOKINESIS
(See Figure 2.21)

Indefinite period
G0
Specialized
cell functions

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 Figure 2.21 Interphase and Mitosis

INTERPHASE EARLY PROPHASE LATE PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE INTERPHASE

Nucleus Astral rays Spindle Centriole Chromosome Chromosomal Daughter Daughter

fibers with two sister microtubule chromosomes cells
chromatids

MITOSIS BEGINS

Centrioles Cleavage
CYTOKINESIS
Metaphase
(two pairs) furrow
plate

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 Figure 2.21 Interphase and Mitosis (Part 1 of 2)

INTERPHASE EARLY PROPHASE LATE PROPHASE

Nucleus Astral rays Spindle Centriole Chromosome

fibers with two sister
chromatids

MITOSIS BEGINS

Centrioles
(two pairs)

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 Figure 2.21 Interphase and Mitosis (Part 2 of 2)

METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE INTERPHASE

Chromosomal Daughter Daughter

microtubule chromosomes cells

CYTOKINESIS
Cleavage
Metaphase
furrow
plate

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