 Primary structures are help together by

peptide bonds
 Secondary structures are held together by
hydrogen bonds that form between nearby
amino acids. These can either by alpha helix
or beta pleated.
 Tertiary structures are affected by all types of
bonds.
 Globular proteins are round and compact
made up of polypeptide chains

 Because their hydrophilic parts face outward

and the hydrophobic parts face inward, it
makes the protein soluble.
o Fibrous proteins are made up of long
insoluble polypeptide chains that are tightly
coiled to form a rope shape.
o The chains are held together by many chains
which make them strong.
o EG: collagen
 Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed
up a reactions and can be intracellular or
extracellular.
 Enzymes are also globular proteins which
have an active site which fits specifically for a
specific substrate.
 They are highly specific due to their 3D
shape.
 Enzymes lowers the activation energy that is
needed to start a reaction. So reactions
happen at lower temperature activation
energy.
 This also speeds up the rate of reaction.
 When a substrate fits into the active site, it
forms the enzyme-substrate complex and
this lowers the activation energy.
Transcription occurs in the nucleus where the
DNA molecule unwinds its double helix and the
hydrogen bases break. The DNA strand is used
as a sense template to produce RNA. Free
nucleotides of RNA produce mRNA. This
complementary base pairs with the DNA strand.
The mRNA strand leaves the nucleus through
the nuclear pores.
Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where the
Messenger RNA sits on the ribosomes. The
Transfer RNA molecules carry their amino acids
to the ribosomes where the Transfer RNA
complementary base pairs with the messenger
RNA. Amino acids are produced and linked by
peptide bonds.
Diffusion is the net movement from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration, until an equilibrium is reached.
This process is passive. It moves molecules
such as hydrophilic molecules through the
phospholipid bilayer.
 Osmosis is the net movement of water
molecules from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration across a
partially permeable membrane until an
equilibrium is met. This is a passive process
and moves molecules through the
phospholipid bilayer.
Facilitated diffusion is the movement of
substances from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration until an
equilibrium is met. This is a passive process. It
moves molecules that are hydrophobic through
channel proteins.
Exocytosis is the bulk transport of substances
across the cell membrane. The vesicles that
contain substances fuse with the cell membrane
releasing their contents of their cell outside.
 Endocytosis is the bulk transport of
molecules into the cell. When molecules are
too big to be taken up by a carrier proteins, A
cell can surround a substance with a section
of its cell membrane. This produces a vesicle
which fuses with the cell membrane and
releases its contents in the cell.
 Active transport is when energy is used to
move substances from an area of low
concentration to an area of high
concentration; against the concentration
gradient; and involves carrier protein. Active
transport uses energy from ATP.
 Lungs are efficient for gas exchange because
they have:
 Many alveoli that provide a large surface area
for diffusion
 The endothelium is only one cell thick so a
short diffusion pathway is set up.
 Good blood supply
 Breathing in and out refreshes the air in the
alveoli, keep in the concentration gradient
high.
1) Cut 5 equal sized pieces of beetroot and rinse them
to remove pigment during cutting.
2) Place the 5 pieces in 5 different test tubes each with
5cm of water
3) Place each test tube in a water bath at different
temperatures of10,20,30,40,50 for the same
amount of time
4) Remove the pieces of beetroot from the tubes,
leaving just the coloured solution.
5) Using a colorimeter, measure the light that is
absorbed.
6) The higher the absorbance, the more pigment
released so the higher the permeability of the
membrane.
Low temperatures- the phospholipids have little
energy so they can not move very much and are
packed together and the membrane is rigid.
Medium temperatures- The phospholipids can
move and aren’t packed as tightly together so
the membrane is partially permeable.
High temperatures -The phospholipid bilayer
starts to melt and the membrane becomes more
permeable
 deoxyribose
DNA consists of:
base

A phosphate

Phosphates and Phosphodiester

deoxyribose are joint link
together by a
phosphodiester bond
in a condensation Adenine(A) = Thymine(T)
reaction. Guanine(G)= Cytosine(C)

In Messenger RNA,
Thymine is replaced by
Uracil (U)
DNA can replicate itself when:
1) The DNA double helix unwinds itself and the
hydrogen bonds break to form two single
strands.
2) Free floating mononucleotides join together to
each original template strand and join by
complementary base pairing.
3) The mononucleotides on the new strand are
joint together by DNA polymerase and hydrogen
bonds form between the bases.
4) Each new DNA contains one original strand and
one new strand.
 Uses heavy and light strands of DNA
 Bacteria is grown in N15
 All nucleotides then contained heavy
isotope of nitrogen
 The bacteria was then moved to N14
 DNA was divided and replicated
 They were extracted and centrifuged
 Amniocentisis- inserting a needle into the
amniotic fluid to collect fallen cells from the
placenta and foetus to test for mutations.
This can be carried out at 15-17weeks and
carries a 0.5-1% risk of miscarriage.
 Chronic Villus sampling- small sample of
placental tissue is obtained through the
abdomen or the vagina. This can be carried
out at 8-12 weeks and carries a risk of 1-2%
risk of miscarriage.
 PIGD-Pre implantation genetic diagnosis-
where the embryo is tested for mutations
before implantation in IVF. This method can
be expensive and unreliable.
 However it prevents the need for abortion.
 Rights & duties- human rights should be
considered
 Maximising the amount of good in the world-
Ulitarianism would say its okay to breach
moral boundaries as long as its for the good
of others
 Making decisions for yourself- give informed
consent to decisions about your health
 Leading a virtuous life –considering whether
the suffering people may go through is worth
it.
 CF is a recessive disease
 It is on chromosome 7 and the common
mutation is DF508 which is the deletion of
three nucleotides.
 CF can result from a number of mutations.
 Mutations are passed onto future
generations.
1) DNA sequence is removed
2) DNA Sequences is replaced with the Normal
allele of the desired gene
3) This initiates protein synthesis
4) Virus is incorporates the cells into our own
DNA
5) Desired gene replaces mutation in the
nucleus
1) Copy of the normal allele is inserted into a
plasmid(ring of DNA)
2) The plasmid is combined with liposomes
3) Positively charged phospholipids combine
with the DNA to form a liposome-DNA
complex.
 Bronchodilators- drugs which aid the muscles
to relax and vaso-dilate allowing air to flow
through. This is take in by a nebuliser.
 Antibiotics- drugs that prevent and kill the
growth of bacteria which is growing in the
mucus.
 DNAase-enzymes that breakdown the DNA
released by white blood cells and prevents
stickiness in the mucus
 Diet-Having high energy foods and may be
protein supplements
 Enzyme supplements- which aid the
digestion process especially if the pancreas is
blocked with mucus
 Physiotherapy-tapping on the wall of the
chest to loosen the mucus
 Transplant- if organs are badly damaged, a
transplant may be needed.
 Basal membrane Apical
membrane

1) Na+ is actively pumped across the basal

membrane
2) Na+ diffuses through sodium channels
in the apical membrane.
3) Cl- diffuses down electrical gradient
4) Water is drawn out of the cell by osmosis
due to high salt concentration in the
tissue fluid
5) Water is drawn out of the mucus.
1) Cl- is pumped into the cell across the basal
membrane.
2) Cl- diffuses through the open CFTR channel
3) Na+ diffuses down the electrical gradient
4) Increased salt levels in the mucus draws
water out of the cell
5) Water is drawn into the cell
People with CF have a non functioning CFTR
channel which means that water is constantly
removed from the mucus, leaving it sticky.
 The pancreatic duct may become blocked
with mucus preventing the release of
digestive enzymes.
 CF also decreases the rate of reabsorption in
the small intestine.
 Can cause malabsorption syndrome
 Can cause a lack of nutrients in the body.
 CF can cause the female’s cervix to be
blocked with mucus preventing the sperm
from reaching the egg.
 CF can cause the males sperm duct to be
blocked with mucus preventing the sperm
from leaving the testes.
 Phosphate head of the molecule of the
phospholipid is a polar. The top is positive
and the rest is slightly negative.
 Fatty acids are non polar and hydrophobic
 Glycerol is hydrophilic
 The more unsaturated the phospholipids are,
the more fluid the model
 Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides by
instead of 3 fatty acids, it replaces the third
fatty acid with a phosphate group that is
negative
 Amino acids contain
 One central carbon atom
 A carboxyl group
 An amino group
 A R group