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6.1 Steel Classification


6.2 Manufacturing of Steel
6.3 Properties and Usage of Steel in
Construction
6.4 Common Types of Steel
6.5 Steel Standard Test
STEEL

LOW/CARBON MEDIUM HIGH ALLOY


MILD CARBON CARBON STEEL

FIGURE 6.1 Steel Classification


6.2.1 Bessemer process
6.2.2 Cementation process
6.2.3 Crucible process
6.2.4 Open hearth process
6.2.5 Electric smelting process
6.2.6 Duplex process
6.2.7 Lintz and Donawitz (L.D) process
 Basic method
 The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, 1855.
 The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation
through air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also
raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.
 The process is carried on in a large container called the Bessemer
converter, which is made of steel and has a lining of silica and clay or of
dolomite.

FIGURE 6.2: Schematic


diagram
of Bessemer converter
 The capacity is from 8 to 30 tons of molten iron; the usual charge is 15
or 18 tons. The converter is egg-shaped.
 At its narrow upper end it has an opening through which the iron to be
treated is introduced and the finished product is poured out.
 The wide end, or bottom, has a number of perforations through which
the air is forced upward into the converter during operation.
 As the air passes upward through the molten pig iron, impurities such
as silicon, manganese, and carbon unite with the oxygen in the air to
form oxides; the carbon monoxide burns off with a blue flame and the
other impurities form slag.
 The converter is then emptied into ladles from which the steel is poured
into molds; the slag is left behind. The whole process is completed in 15
to 20 min. The Bessemer process was superseded by the open-hearth
process.
 is an obsolete technique for making steel. Unlike steelmaking it
increased the amount of carbon in the iron.
 probably originated in Bohemia in the 16th century and was in
use in Bavaria in 1601.
 was patented in England by William Ellyot and Mathias Meysey in
1614.
 The process thus begins with wrought iron and charcoal. It uses
one or more long stone pots inside a furnace.
 Iron bars and charcoal are packed in alternating layers, with a top
layer of charcoal and then refractory matter to make the pot or
'coffin' air tight.
 Some manufacturers used a mix of powdered charcoal, soot and
mineral salts, called cement powder - which gave the process its
name.
 Depending on the thickness of the iron bars the pots were
then heated from below for a week or more.
 Bars were regularly examined and when the correct
condition was reached the heat is withdrawn and the pots
are left until cool - usually around fourteen days.
 The iron had 'gained' a little over 1% in mass from the
carbon in the charcoal, and had become heterogeneous
bars of blister steel.
 The bars were then shortened, bound, heated and
hammered
 Alternatively they could be broken up and melted in a
crucible using a crucible furnace with a flux to become
crucible steel or cast steel.
 Technique for producing cast or tool steel.
 It was invented in 1740 by Benjamin Huntsman, who heated
small pieces of carbon steel in a closed fireclay crucible placed in
a coke fire.
 This was the first process used in Europe in which the
temperature (2,900°F, or 1,600°C) was high enough to melt the
steel, producing a homogeneous metal of uniform composition.
 After 1870 the Siemens regenerative gas furnace replaced the
coke-fired furnace. Capable of producing even higher
temperatures, the Siemens furnace had a number of combustion
holes, each holding several crucibles, and heated as many as
100 crucibles at a time.
 All high-quality tool steel and high-speed steel was long made by
the crucible process. In the 20th century the electric furnace has
replaced it in countries with inexpensive electric power.
Coke Furnace
 Steelmaking technique that for most of the 20th century
accounted for most steel made in the world.
 A steel-making process carried out in an open-hearth
furnace in which selected pig iron and malleable scrap iron
are melted, with the addition of pure iron ore.
 William Siemens made steel from pig iron in a furnace of
his design in 1867.
 The same year the French manufacturer Pierre-Émile Martin
(1824 – 1915) used the idea to produce steel by melting
wrought iron with steel scrap.
 Siemens used the waste heat given off by the furnace: he
directed the fumes from the furnace through a brick
checkerwork, heating it to a high temperature, and then
used the same path to introduce air into the furnace;
 the preheated air significantly increased the flame
temperature.
 The open-hearth process furnace (which replaced the
Bessemer process) has itself been replaced in most
industrialized countries by the basic oxygen process and the
electric furnace
 A two-step procedure in which steel is refined by one
process (usually the Bessemer process) and
 finished by another process (usually open-hearth or electric-
furnace). Also known as duplexing; duplex practice.
 Also known as basic oxygen steelmaking or LD-converter.
 is a method of steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten iron is made
into steel.
 The LD-converter is named after the Austrian place names Linz and
Donawitz.
 Method of producing steel from a charge consisting mostly of pig iron.
The charge is placed in a furnace similar to the one used in the
Bessemer process of steelmaking except that pure oxygen instead of air
is blown into the charge to oxidize the impurities present.
 One desirable feature of this process is that it takes less than an hour,
and is thus much faster than the open-hearth process, another
important method of steelmaking.
 A second advantage is that a major byproduct is carbon monoxide,
which can be used as a fuel or in producing various chemicals, such as
acetic acid. The basic oxygen process also produces less air pollution
than methods using air.
Hardenability

Hardeness
 Steel property which describes the depth to which the steel may be
hardened during quenching.
 dependent on chemical composition and grain size, but independent of the
quenchant or quenching system (cooling rate).
 the structures obtained across a quenched section are a function of both
hardenability and the quenching process (severity of quench).
 the capacity of the steel to harden in depth under a given set of conditions.
 Steels with high hardenability are needed for large high strength
components, such as large extruder screws for injection moulding of
polymers, pistons for rock breakers, mine shaft supports, aircraft
undercarriages.
 Steels with low hardenability may be used for smaller components, such as
chisels and shears, or for surface hardened components such as gears.
 Jominy end quench test
 Measure of the resistance of a material to plastic
deformation. This depends on the carbon content and
microstructure of the steel.
 Hence the same steel can exhibit different hardness values
depending upon its microstructure, which itself may depend
on how the sample was quenched.
1) Framed structure

2) Shell-type structure

3) Suspension-type structure

4) Bolt steel

5) Reinforcing bar
 bending and axial load.
 Rigidly connected or having simple end connection along
bracing to provide suitability. Such as rolled and formed
section and compound section.
 Example of framed structure such as space truss.

Figure 6.3 Space Truss


 Serves a function in addition to participation in carrying
loads.
 Containment vessel used to stove liquids, water tangles,
storage bin.

Figure 6.4 Millenium Dome, England


 Suspension-type structure tension cables are the major
supporting system.
 Eg; suspension bridge

Figure 6.5 Tatara Ohashi Bridge, Japan-the largest cable-stayed bridge


 Bolt should have adequate tensile strength and toughness.
 Two types of bolt

a) Ordinary bolts

b) Friction grip bolts


 Concrete is weak in tension but greater in compression.
 To solve the problem in tension, reinforcing bar is required.
 Is used to overcome the deficiencies in tensile and bending
strength.
 Must have adequate tensile properties and strong bondage
to transmit loads to steel
 produced 2 grades;
1) hot rolled mild steel = 250N/mm2
2) high yield steel = 460N/mm2
 available in diameters of 6, 8, 10 ,12, 16, 20, 25, 35 and
40mm.
 mild steel bars are produced as smooth round bars.
 high yield bars are produced as deformed bars.
Figure 6.7 Reinforcing bar-deformed bars
i) Mild steel

ii) Medium
carbon

iii) High carbon

iv) Alloy steels


 Also known as low carbon or soft steel.
 It is ductile, tougher and more elastic than wrought iron.
 Can be forged and welded.
 Difficult to temper and harden.
 It rusts quickly and can be permanently magnetised.
 The properties of specific gravity=7.3.
 Ultimate compressive strength = 800 to 1200 N/mm2.
 Tensile strength=600 to 800 N/mm2.
 Used on the form of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof
coverings and sheet piles and in railway tracks.
 The relatively low strength and high ductility of the low-
carbon steels make it possible also to cold-work these
steels.
 Cold-rolled low-carbon steels are extensively used for sheet
applications in the appliance and automotive industries.
Cold-rolled steels have excellent surface finishes, and both
hot- and cold-worked mild steels are readily welded.
 rebar comprised mild steel material with a yield strength of
approximately 250 N/mm².
 contain between 0.25 and 0.70% carbon, and are most
frequently used in the heat-treated condition for machine
components that require high strength and good fatigue
resistance.
 Carbon content in high carbon steel varies from 0.55 to
1.5%.
 It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel.
 Can be forged and welded with difficulty.
 The properties of specific gravity =7.9.
 Ultimate compressive strength = 1350 N/mm2.
 Tensile strength=1400 to 2000 N/mm2.
 Used for reinforcing cement concrete-reinforcing bars and
prestressed concrete members, making tools and machine
parts.
 Can take shocks and vibrations.
 a steel whose distinctive properties are due to the presence
of one or more elements other than carbon.

ALLOY STEEL USES


Stainless steel • Ball bearings, dies, crushing machines,
razors
Nickel steel • Automobile and airplane parts
Invar steel • Delicate instruments
Vanadium steel • High speed tools, autoparts, chessis
Tungsten steel • Drilling machines, high speed tools
Manganese steel • Mining equipments, heavy earth, rollers,
jaws of crushers, crossing in railways
Molybdenum steel • Gears, axles, shafts
 The Jominy end quench test is the standard method for
measuring the hardenability of steels. In ASTM A255, this
describes the ability of the steel to be hardened in depth by
quenching. The test sample is a cylinder with a length of
102 mm (4 inches) and a diameter of 25.4 mm (1 inch)

Jominy test specimen


 The steel sample is normalised to eliminate differences in
microstructure due to previous forging, and then
austenitised.
 usually at a temperature of 800 to 900°C. The test sample
is quickly transferred to the test machine, where it is held
vertically and sprayed with a controlled flow of water onto
one end of the sample.
 This cools the specimen from one end, simulating the effect
of quenching a larger steel component in water.
Jominy test specimen
 The cooling rate varies along the length of the sample from
very rapid at the quenched end, to rates equivalent to air
cooling at the other end.

The data of Jominy end quench test


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