Introduction to C Programming

Program design
 Topic & Structure of the lesson

In this chapter you will learn about:

• Problem Solving
• Algorithm
• Pseudocodes
• Flowcharts

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Learning Outcomes

If you have mastered this topic, you should be able

to use the following terms correctly in your
assignments:

 Algorithm

 Pseudocode

 Flowchart

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Problem Solving

UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

First:
What is the unknown? What are the
You have to data?What is the condition?
understand Is it possible to satisfy the condition?Is the
the problem. condition sufficient to determine the
unknown?Or is it sufficient?Or Redundant?
Or Contradictory?
Draw a figure.Introduce suitable
notation.Separate the various parts of the
condition.Can you write them down?

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Problem Solving

DEVISING A PLAN
Second: Have you seen it before? Or have you
Find the connection seen the same problem in slightly different
between the data and form?
the unknown. Do you know a related problem?
Auxiliary problems Look at the unknown! Try to think of a
may be devised if familiar problem having the same or similar
needed. unknown. Split the problem into smaller,
You should obtain simple sub-problems. If you cannot solve
eventually a plan of the proposed problem try to solve first
the solution. some related problem. Or solve more
general problem. Or special case of the
problem. Or solve the part of the problem.

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Problem Solving

Third: CARRYING OUT THE PLAN

Carry out your Carrying out your plan of the solution,check

plan. each step. Can you see clearly that step is
correct? Can you prove that it is correct?
Fourth: LOOKING BACK

Examine the Can you check the result? Can you derive
solution the result differently? Can you use the
obtained. result, or the method, for some other
problem?

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Algorithm

Algorithmic problem:
Any problem whose solution can be
expressed as a set of executable instructions.

Algorithm:
A well defined computational procedure
consisting of a set of instructions, that takes
some value or set of values, as input, and
produces some value or set of values, as
output.
CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design
 Characteristics of an Algorithm

• Each step of an algorithm must be exact, preciously

and ambiguously described.
• It must terminate, i.e. it contains a finite number of
steps.
• It must be effective, i.e.., produce the correct output.
• It must be general, i.e.. to solve every instance of the
problem. An Algorithm is implemented in some
programming language.
• program = Algorithm + Data Structures.

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Problem Solving

Now that we have an exact idea about how the

problem is solved, let us represent this in a clearer
manner, using the defining diagram.

Input Processing Output

Value1 Sum
Value2

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 Problem Solving

The next step is to identify the actual processing

steps required to convert the input to become the
output.

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum

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 Algorithm Development
Once the defining diagram has been
developed, the next logical step is to develop
the algorithm (which is much more detailed).

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum

The developed processing steps have to be more

detailed in the algorithm.
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 Operators

The basic mathematical operators used in algorithms

are as follows:-

+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ division
= assignment
() brackets for grouping calculations

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 Algorithm Development

Example of an algorithm (using pseudocodes) which

can be used to carry out the tasks outlined in the
defining diagram is as follows:-

1) Read Value1, Value2

2) Calculate
Sum = Value1 + Value2
3) Display Sum
CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design Slide 30 (of 80)
 Pseudocoding

A Pseudocode language is semiformal, English-like

language with a limited vocabulary that can be used
to design and describe algorithms.

The pseudocode language can be used for:

 Designing algorithms
 Communicating algorithms as programs
 Implementing algorithms as programs
 Debugging logic errors in program

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 Program Flowcharts

As humans are more inclined towards

understanding diagrams and pictures rather
than words, pseudocodes tends to become
tedious to understand if too lengthy.
Program flowcharts, because they are
represented graphically, makes understanding
easier.

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 Flowcharting

 Another technique used in designing and representing

algorithms.
 Alternative to pseudocoing
 A pseudocode description is verbal, a flowchart is
graphical in nature.

Definition:
 A flowchart is a graph consisting of geometrical shapes
that are connected by flow lines.

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 Program Flowcharts
The following are the commonly used
symbols for drawing program flowcharts.
terminator off-page
connector

process storage

decision document
making

input/output connector

arrowheads
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 Pseudocode for the Control Structures

The Sequence Control Structure:

The sequence control structure is a series of steps
or statements that are executed in the order in which
they are written in an algorithm.
For Example:
read taxable income
read filing status
compute income tax

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 Decision Making

The Selection Control Structure:

The selection control structure defines two courses of
action, depending on the outcome of a condition. A
condition is an expression that, when evaluated, computes
to either true or false.
Syntax is:
if condition (Condition)
False True
then-part
else
Action_2 Action_1
else-part
end-if

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 Decision Making

Commonly used relational operators in expressions:-

> Greater Than

< Less Than
= Equals To
<> Not Equals To
>= Greater Than or Equals To
<= Less Than or Equals To
() Brackets used for prioritising certain calculations

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 Decision Making

Compound expressions can be represented

using the following operators:-

AND Every expression must evaluate to be

true in order for the whole expression to
be true.
OR As long as any one of the expression
can be true, the entire IF statement will
be true.
NOT The inverse (opposite) of the entire
expression.
CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design Slide 40 (of 80)
 Decision Making - Example

A potential employer is waiting for you to give a reply (on the

spot) about the job offer with a salary of RM2000. Your
decision would be to only take a job worth more than
RM4000. What would you say?
IF (Salary>4000) THEN
Say “YES!”
ELSE
Say “NO!”
ENDIF

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 Decision Making - Example

Certain conditions may give rise to more than

one expression being evaluated. These are
known as compound expressions.
E.g. You are interested in taking up a job which
pays more than RM4000 and that the company
must also provide a credit card.
IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN
Take Job!!
ENDIF

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design Slide 39 (of 80)

 Repetition

Repetition Control Structure:

The repetition control structure specifies a block of
one or more statements that are repeatedly executed
until a condition is satisfied.
Syntax is:
while condition
loop-body
end-while

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 Looping Constructs

Looping constructs (also known as repetition or

iteration constructs) are a kind of construct found
in pseudocodes which allows statements (or a
group of statements) to be repeated.
The main reason why looping constructs are
provided is because most of the problems which
we encounter everyday requires some degree of
repetition.

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 Looping Constructs

The looping constructs available in pseudocodes

are as follows:-

DOWHILE...ENDDO
FOR…NEXT
REPEAT...UNTIL

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 Looping Constructs

The format of the DOWHILE...ENDDO construct is shown

below:-

DOWHILE (expression) Initialization

:
:
: (Condition) True

ENDDO False
Action_1

An expression which
Group of determines whether Incrementation /
Decrementation

statements the loop will

continue. Slide 49 (of 80)

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Looping Constructs

The format of the FOR...NEXT construct is shown below:-

FOR (initialze TO expression) STEP increment
: VN
: in end
:
incre
NEXT

An expression which determines

whether the loop will continue. Action_1

Group of statements VN – variable_name

in – initial value
VN
end – ending value
incre - incrementation
CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design Slide 50 (of 80)
 Looping Constructs

The format of the

REPEAT...UNTIL construct is
shown below:-

REPEAT
:
:
:
UNTIL (expression)

Group of An expression which

statements determines whether the loop
will continue.

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design Slide 51 (of 80)

 Example
Dowhile… Enddo

Dowhile (income is less than 50000)

print “Enter taxable income;
should be greater than or equal
to 50000”
read income
Enddo

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 Array

• Contiguous, homogeneous collection of data

values that share a common name.
• Element - one value in an array.
• Index (subscript) - an integer indicating a
position in an array. Array indexes start with 0.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 20 33 44 15 6 17 88 29

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design

 Array - Example

• Replace every third element in the following

array with value 10.
• Note: Name: number; Size (elements) = 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 4 2 3 5 7 1 7 10 4 2 10 5 7 10 7

FOR (index = 0 TO 7) STEP 3

number[index] = 10
NEXT index
or
Set index to 0
FOR every third element in the number
replace existing value with 10
increase index by 3
ENDFOR
CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design
 Design (Flowchart)
Begin

Read Value1,
Value2

Calculate
Sum = Value1 + Value2

Display
Sum

End

CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design Slide 64 (of 80)

 Design (Flowchart)
Begin

Read Amount

YES NO
Amount>20.00?

Calculate Calculate
Actual=Amount * 0.80 Actual=Amount

End
CT018-3-1 Introduction To C Programming Program Design Slide 65 (of 80)
 Summary

• An algorithm is a sequence of a finite number of steps

arranged in a specific logical order that, when executed,
produce the solution for a problem.

• A pseudocode language is a semiformal,English-like

language with a limited vocabulary that can be used to
design and describe algorithms.

• A Flowchart is a graphical representation of an

algorithm.

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