Abrasive Machining- Introduction

Abrasive Machining involves material removal by the action of hard,

abrasive particles that are usually in the form of a bonded wheel
• Types of abrasive machining processes:
-Grinding, Honing, Lapping, Super finishing, Polishing and Buffing
processes. However, in terms of no of m/c tools used, Grinding is the
most common.
• The abrasive machining processes are generally used as finishing
operations.
• Abrasive processes are important commercially and technologically
because of the following reasons:
- They can be used on all type of materials ranging from soft metals to
hardened steels; and non-metallic materials such as ceramics & Si.
- Some of these processes can produce extremely fine surface finishes, to
o.025𝜇𝑚.
- For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be held to extremely
close tolerances.
 Grinding Process
Grinding is a material removal process accomplished by abrasive
particles, contained in a bonded grinding wheel, rotating at very high
surface speed. The grinding wheel is usually disc-shaped and is
precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.
- Grinding- Versus Milling
Similarities:
- Cutting occurs on either the periphery or on the face of the grinding
wheel similar to peripheral milling or face milling
- The rotating grinding wheel consists of many abrasive particles which
act as cutting teeth like many teeth on milling cutters.
Differences:
- The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller and more in
quantity than teeth on milling cutters
- Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling.
- The abrasive grits in a grinding wheel are randomly oriented,
contrary to milling cutter teeth.
- Grinding wheel is self-sharpening – as the wheel wears the abrasive
particles fracture to create fresh cutting edges or pull out to expose
fresh abrasive grains. Whereas, teeth of milling cutters need to
sharpen and sometimes sharpening becomes difficult if teeth have
contours.
 Grinding Wheel
• A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material.
• The bonding material holds the particles in place and establishes the shape
and structure of the wheel.
• These 02 ingredients and the way they are fabricated determine the 5 basic
parameters of grinding wheel:
1. Abrasive material
2. Grain size
3. Bonding material
4. Wheel grade
5. Wheel structure
 1. Abrasive material (Grinding Wheel Parameters)
Different abrasive materials are appropriate for grinding different work
materials.
General properties of abrasive material used in grinding wheel include:
a. High hardness
b. Wear resistance
c. Toughness
d. Friability
Friability: Capacity of abrasive material to fracture when the cutting edge of the
grain becomes dull, thereby exposing a new sharp edge.
Commercial Abrasive Materials:
 2. Grain Size (Grinding Wheel Parameters)
• Grain size of abrasive particles is important in determining surface
finish and material removal rate
• Small grain size produce better finishes while larger grain size permits
larger material removal rates
• Harder work materials require small grain size to cut effectively.
• Soft work materials require large grain size, on the other hand
• So, a choice must be made in between the above two objectives.

The grit size of abrasive particles is measured using a mesh.

- Higher grit size means smaller grains. 8 grit size is very coarse than 250.
- Larger grit sizes are used in super-finishing or lapping.
 3. Bonding Materials (Grinding Wheel Parameters)
• Bonding material holds the abrasive grains and establishes the shape and
structural integrity of the grinding wheel.
• Desirable properties of the bond material include strength, toughness,
hardness and temperature resistance.
• The bonding material must be able to:
- withstand centrifugal forces (strength), and high temperature experienced by
the grinding wheel.
- resist chattering in shock loading of wheel and hold the abrasive grains rigidly
in place to accomplish the cutting action.
- allow the worn grains to be dislodged so that new grains can expose

Bonding Materials
 4. Wheel Structure (Grinding Wheel Parameters)
Wheel structure refers to relative spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel.
• In addition to the abrasive grains and bond material, grinding wheel contains
air gaps or pores (Fig.)
• The volumetric proportions of grains, bond material and pores is expressed
as: 𝑷𝒈 + 𝑷𝒃 + 𝑷𝒑 = 𝟏 (P for proportion; g for grains; b for bond; p for pores)
• Wheel structures ranges between Open & Dense.
- An open structure is one in which Pp is relatively larger than Pg
- A dense structure is one in which Pp is smaller than Pg
- Dense structures are used where better surface finish and dimensional
accuracy is desired.
 5. Wheel Grade (Grinding Wheel Parameters)
• Wheel grade indicates the grinding wheel’s bond strength in retaining the
abrasive grits during cutting
• This is largely dependent on the amount of bonding material present in the
wheel structure (Pb )
• Grade is measured on scale that ranges between soft and hard.
- Soft wheels loose grains readily, while hard wheels retain their abrasive grains
- Soft wheels are used for low material removal rates (RMR)
- Hard wheels are used for high material removal rates

Note: Hard wheel does not necessarily mean wheel contains hard abrasive;
rather hard means hard bonding
 Types of Grinding Wheels

Fig. 2
 Analysis of Grinding Process
• Fig. 3 (surface grinding) shows the principal features of the process
• Peripheral speed of grinding wheel is determined by rotational speed of
wheel: v = DN v (surface speed of wheel in m/min; N (spindle speed); D (wheel
diameter)
• Depth of cut d, called in-feed, is the penetration of wheel below the original
work surface
• As the operation proceeds, the grinding wheel is fed laterally across the
surface on each pass by the work. This is called cross feed and determines the
width (w) of cut.
• Width of cut * depth of cut= x-sectional area of cut
• The speed (vw) at which the w/p passes by the wheel is called w/p speed.
• The material removal rate:
RMR= vwwd
Fig. 3a
 Analysis of Grinding Process
• Each grain in the grinding wheel cuts an individual chip whose (chip)
longitudinal shape before cutting is shown in Fig. 3b, and whose assumed
x-sectional shape is triangular (3c.
• At the exit point of grit from w/p, the triangular chip x-section is largest
with height t and width w’.

Assumed chip shape before

cutting
a. Front view; b. Sectional view
 Analysis of Grinding Process
• We want know how cutting conditions combine with
grinding wheel parameters affect the following:
1. Surface finish
2. Forces & Energy
3. Temperature of work surface
4. Wheel wear

1. Surface finish
• Surface finish depends on the grain size. Smaller grain
size yield better finish.
- The size of chip from geometry: 𝑙𝑐 = 𝐷𝑑
- Aspect ratio: 𝑟𝑔 = 𝑤′/𝑡
• No of active grains per square inch = C inversely
v (wheel speed) must not
proportional to grains size be confused with vw
• No of chips formed per time: 𝒏𝒄 =vwC (w/p linear speed)
• Higher the 𝒏𝒄 value , better the surface finish
 Analysis of Grinding Process
2. Forces & Energy
Specific energy in grinding: U: specific energy (𝐽ൗ𝑚𝑚3) ; 𝐹𝑐 is
cutting force or the force to drive w/p past wheel (N), other parameters have
already been defined.
• Specific energy in grinding is much higher than other machining processes.
This is due to 3 reasons:

- Size effect: chip size in grinding is very small. Small chip size causes energy
required to remove each unit volume of material significantly higher than in
conventional machining processes.

- Negative rake angle: Average rake angle of grain on wheel is -30. So

corresponding shear planes have very low angles which will cause higher shear
strains. This means higher energy level of grinding.
 Analysis of Grinding Process
- Grains action: All the grains do not have same rake angle. They are randomly
oriented. So some of the grains will not cut the material, as shown in Fig. 4.
b & c are not engaged in cutting so just wasting energy.

• Cutting force acting on a single grain:

- The practical significance of this relation is that whether a grain, under specific
cutting force, will pull out from the wheel. If cutting force is greater than the
binding strength of wheel, grain will pull out.

Fig. 4.
 Analysis of Grinding Process
3. Temperature at the work surface
• Because of size effect, high –ve rake angles, plowing and rubbing of abrasive
grains against the w/p, and also friction, high temperature generates at the
work surface.
• In case of conventional machining, most of the heat is carried by chip but in
grinding most of the heat is left in the work surface.

• Damaging effects of high temperature:

- Surface burns & cracks
- Burn sign is an indication of metallurgical damage beneath the work surface
- Surface cracks perpendicular to wheel speed direction appear
- High temperatures will cause wheel softening
- Residual stresses in work surface, possibly decreasing fatigue strength of part.
• Relation between work surface temperature and process parameters

- Decreasing d, C, v, and increasing vw will reduce surface temperature.

 Analysis of Grinding Process
4. Wheel wear
• Three principal reasons for wheel wear:
1. Grain fracture occurs when a portion of grain breaks off but the rest of
grain remains bonded in the wheel. The edges of the fractured area become
new cutting edges on the grinding wheel.
2. Attritious wear involves dulling of the individual grains resulting in flat
spots and rounded edges. Attritious wear is analogous to tool wear in
milling. This is caused by friction, diffusion and chemical reaction b/w the
abrasive material and work material in presence of high temperatures.
3. Bond fracture occurs when the individual grains are pulled out of bonding
material. It depends on wheel grade. Hard grades (means strong bonding
among abrasive particles) . Bond fracture occurs because the grain become
dull due to attritious wear and the resulting cutting force is excessive. Sharp
grains cut more efficiently with lower cutting forces, hence they remain
attached in bond structure.
 Analysis of Grinding Process
• These 3 mechanisms (1, 2, 3) combine to cause grinding wheel wear as
depicted in Fig. 5.
• 3 (bond fracture) is lead by 2 (attritious wear) and 2 is lead by 1 (grain
fracture). The 3rd region involves extensive plowing and rubbing. As a result
work metal chips become clogged in the pores of wheel, called wheel
loading.

Grain Fracture Bond fracture

Attritious wear

Fig. 5

Vol of work material removed

 Efficiency of grinding wheel
Efficiency of grinding wheel is given by grinding ratio, defined as:
𝑽
- GR= 𝒘
𝑽𝒈
𝑽𝒘 is volume of material removed from w/p;
𝑽𝒈 is volume of material removed from grinding wheel.
- Higher GR means higher wheel efficiency
- High wheel speeds increase GR in certain range (Fig. 6). This is opposite to
milling

Fig. 6
 Re-sharpening of Grinding Wheel
When the wheel is in 3rd region of wear, it must be re-sharpened to improve its
efficiency:

- Two methods are common in this context:

1. Dressing:
- a. Clogged material is removed;
- b. dulled grains are broken off on the outside periphery of wheel to expose
new grains.
- This is done by rotating disk, abrasive stick or grinding wheel operating at high
speed , held against the wheel being dressed.

2. Truing:
- This process not only sharpens the wheel but also restores its cylindrical
shape.
- Truing is done by feeding a diamond-pointed tip slowly and precisely across
the wheel as it rotates.
 Grinding Operations
1. Surface Grinding
2. Cylindrical Grinding
3. Center-less Grinding
4. Creep Feed Grinding

1. Surface Grinding
• Normally used to grind plain flat surfaces
• It is performed using either the periphery of grinding wheel or the flat face of
the wheel
• Since the work is held in horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is
performed by rotating the wheel about a horizontal axis. While. Face grinding
is done by rotating the wheel about a vertical axis.
• In either type of grinding, the relative motion of work is achieved by
reciprocating the work past wheel or by rotating it.
 Grinding Operations
Surface Grinding- Types:
4 possible varients because of motions of
work and wheel orientations

• Types a & b can be used to form

special contoured surfaces by
employing a formed wheel Horizontal grinding
• Types c & d have larger wheel
diameter than the w/p width. Due
to this reason, RMR in c, d is larger
than exhibited by a & b.
• Type d, grinding machine with
vertical spindle and w/p rotating,
gives the largest RMR because of Vertical grinding
continuous operation, no idle Fig. 7
stroke as in c, and wheel dia
larger than work width.
 Grinding Operations
2. Cylindrical Grinding
This process is used for grinding of rotational parts
It has two types
a. External cylindrical grinding (also called center type grinding to distinguish from center-
less grinding):
• The process is performed much like a turning process on a lathe m/c in which
tool post is replaced by a high speed motor to rotate wheel.
• The work is rotated between 02 centers to provide a surface speed of 18-
30m/min.
• Grinding wheel speed: 1200-2000m/min
• Two feeds: in-feed and cross feed. Cross feed is along axis of rotation
• The in-feed ranges from 0.0075mm-0.075mm
• Applications: spindles, axles, bearings, crank shafts
External Internal

Fig. 9
 Grinding Operations
2. Cylindrical Grinding

b. Internal cylindrical grinding

The process is performed much like a boring operation.
• The work piece is held in a chuck and rotated to provide surface speeds of 20-
60m/min.
• Wheel surface speed 18-30m/min (almost)
• Two feeds: in-feed (from inside of work) and transverse feed
• Wheel dia must be smaller than work piece bore dia
• Applications: Inside hardened surfaces of bearings, bushings etc
External Internal
 Grinding Operations
3. Center-less Grinding
• A replacement of cylindrical grinding for high production rate
• Work is not held at centers
• Regulating wheel is set at an angle for controlling through feed of w/p
• Of course used for grinding cylindrical surfaces
• In internal center-less grinding, work is supported by 02 wheels instead of rest
blade in external center-less grinding. So w/p in former process can not be so
long

Internal center-less grinding External center-less grinding

 Grinding Operations
4. Creep Feed Grinding: Also called Deep Grinding
• Depths of cut 1000 to 10,000 times greater than in conventional surface
grinding
• Feed rates reduced by about the same proportion
• Material removal rate and productivity are increased in creep feed grinding
because the wheel is continuously cutting
• In conventional surface grinding, wheel is engaged in cutting for only a portion
of the stroke length
• Improved accuracy
• Reduced Temperatures

Comparison of creep feed grinding (R) with conventional grinding (L)

 Other Grinding Processes
Honing
Lapping
Super-finishing

1. Honing
Abrasive process performed by a set of
bonded abrasive sticks using a
combination of rotational and
oscillatory motions
Common application is to finish the
bores of internal combustion engines
Surface finishes of 0.12 m (5 -in) or
better
Creates a characteristic cross-hatched
surface that retains lubrication

The honing process: (a) the honing tool used for internal bore surface, and (b)
cross-hatched surface pattern created by the action of the honing tool.
 Other Grinding Processes
2. Lapping
Uses fluid suspension of very small abrasive particles between work-piece and
lap (tool)
Lapping compound - fluid with abrasives, general appearance of a chalky paste
Applications: optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, gages

The lapping process in lens-making.

 Other Grinding Processes
3. Super-finishing
Similar to honing - uses bonded abrasive stick pressed against surface and
reciprocating motion
Differences with honing:
Shorter strokes
Higher frequencies
Lower pressures between tool and surface
Smaller grit sizes

Super-finishing across
an external cylindrical
surface