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3. Limitations
Orbital, optical, downlink speed, other.
5. Questions.
Orbit types
Sun-synchronous orbit:
Flight at the same local time
over the same latitude line
Ultra-small EO satellite design: orbital limitations
Earth observation:
medium to high resolution low Earth orbit (LEO), under Van Allen radiation belts
the same resolution of all places circular LEO, apogee height ≈ perigee height
the same time of photo the same place Sun-synchronous polar orbit.
the lower orbit – the simpler to obtain high resolution pictures.
Orbit
Shooting
Shooting angle
angle (pitch/roll) FOV (pitch/roll)
track
Altitude
Next
track
Earth Observation: Operation modes
Shooting track Shot №3 (with pitch tracking)
(parallel track)
route Shot №2
Shooting
complex route
Shot №1
Swath Route
width Swath (shot)
Route
(strip) Corridor
width
Target
Swath of specific shape One or multiple target
along sub-satellite point along sub-satellite point
Shot №1 stereopair
Area shot №1
Stereo base
Route Route
(stereo strip) (areal)
Stereo Area
Multiple shots of same target Area mapping.
from several points of view Swath along sub-satellite point
Cubesat EO payload design: Focal length and GSD
Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) is the distance
(measured on the ground) between the centers of small areas,
imaged to the adjacent pixels of the sensor.
ps: Sensor pixel size Focal length of satellite optics
and sensor pixel size
EFL: Focal length are connected with GSD
and with height of orbit
GSD = HO by simple proportion.
ps EFL
Additionally, exposure time is usually upper-limited by period of time needed for 1-pixel-shift the picture
due to orbital motion of satellite, and can be easily calculated. Several useful samples shown in the table:
Orbit height / Orbital period 400km : 5554sec 600km : 5801sec
GSD, m 22 5 2,5 1 22 5 2,5 1
EFL (3.1um pixel sensor), mm 56 248 496 1240 84,5 372 744 1860
EFL (3.7um pixel sensor), mm 67 296 592 1480 101 444 888 2220
EFL (5.5um pixel sensor), mm 100 440 880 2200 150 660 1320 3300
Speed of nadir point 7216 m/s 6908 m/s
1-pixel-shift time, ms 3,05 0,69 0,35 0,139 3,18 0,72 0,36 0.145
EO resolution: diffraction limit
R_Airy = 1.22 * La * EFL / Dap Where: R_Airy – Airy radius (radius of diffraction spot
with 85% energy inside; resolution limit);
GR = HO * R_Airy / EFL La – wavelength; Assume 510nm (green);
EFL – effective focal length of optic;
GR = 1.22 * La * HO / Dap Dap – aperture of optic (light diameter);
HO – Distance (Height of Orbit);
GR – Ground resolution (projection of Airy
radius to the object plane (ground));
Orbit Form-factor:Real aperture limit 3U, 6U: Dap<90mm 12U, 16U: Dap<225mm
height Theoretical Diffraction limit of resolution @550nm / @650nm / optimistic reality
400km GR(in meters) ≈ 250 / Dap (in mm) 3,0m / 3.5m / 4.9m 1,1m / 1,4m / 1.7-2m
600km GR(in meters) ≈ 375 / Dap (in mm) 4,5m / 5.3m / 7.5m 1,7m / 2,12m / 2.5-3m
Some trick: Resolution can be enhanced (for marketing purposes) by 25% using “digital enhancement” -
sharpening really help to resolve targets.
Cubesat EO payload design: diffraction limit and PSF
Assume that sensor pixel size is the same as R_Airy (so, 4pixels/spot),
calculate the possible EFL and F-numbers for several lenses (inside 100mm diameter):
Focal length, mm EFL 800 600 500 400 300 250 200 150 100
F-number FN F/10 F/8 F/6,3 F/5,6 F/4 F/3 F/2,5 F/1,8 F/1,2
Aperture, mm Dap 80 75 79 71 75 83 80 83 83
(sensor pixel size less than:)
Airy radius, um (@510nm) R_Airy=1,22*0,51um*EFL/Dap 6,22 4,98 3,92 3,48 2,49 1,87 1,56 1,12 0,75
GSD, m (from 400km orbit) GSD_C = HO*R_Airy / EFL 3,1 3,3 3,1 3,5 3,3 3,0 3,1 3,0 3,0
at right sample
the pixel size is
0.56 R_Airy
Point spread function (PSF):
energy distribution from point source
Satellite Earth Observation – spectral bands
Spectral energy distribution calculated from illuminance using eye sensitivity curve and spectral distribution
curve D65 (Daylight ISO 10526:1999), than convoluted with sensor quantum efficiency, than integrated over
each used wavelength band. Graphs show the number of electrons at sensor pixel (per lumen*second)
Name of band Aerosole Blue Green Red Red Edge NIR 1 Panchrome
Wavelength, nm 400-450 450-500 510-585 625-690 690-750 770-900 400-900
Quants/sec to pixel @1 lux 16800 25450 33450 28200 23250 45200 172000
Average quant. efficiency 0,194 0,248 0,281 0,250 0,224 0,103 0,208
Satellite Earth Observation – limitations
1. Revisiting time: how often each area of interest (AOI, target) appears in the field of view of some
satellite within the constellation.
(depends on Area_of_regard (depends on orbit altitude and off-nadir angle)),
and on Number and position of satellites in constellation).
Can be easily designed, and lower boundary for satellite number can be calculated.
2. Reimaging period: how often every defined target (from the whole set of AOI) will be exposed in fact.
(complicated dependence on size of each target and their relative positions,
and on swath width and retargeting speed and target-selection tactics,
and on number and orbital positions of satellites in constellation).
Very complex task for big set of medium-sized targets (as urban areas or coasts) and short periods - only boundaries
can be estimated. For week period and big-sized AOI (as agricultural areas) number of satellites can be calculated.
3. Swath length: how long the satellite can take photos continuously and how many photos at one turn
(depends on energy limits per turn, and on Data Storage size, and
on lighting conditions (local solar elevation angle at target at the moment of shooting)).
The spacecraft is specially designed for this tasks, and we need only check that performance is not limited this way.
4. Downloading data performance: how much data can be sent to ground stations (GS) per day
(depends on downlink data speed (depends on onboard transmitter and link budget ( GS antenna gain)),
and on the total length of downlink sessions per day (depends on Number and position of Ground
stations)). Can be estimated with some assumption about transmitter and for some assumed sets of ground stations.
5. Visibility conditions: for each target from set – will this photo be clear enough for usage?
(depends on cloudiness, on local and average weather over target, and on seasonal Illumination).
Only statistical estimations can be done. But for number of high-latitude urban areas reimaging time can be more that
3 month in winter (due to low solar elevation), and for some subtropical areas – more than 3 weeks due to season rains.
System Performance: Reimaging time (for urban areas)
Task for example: regular (daily?) reimaging of all urban areas, based on Auriga ultra-small satellite constellation.
Definition of “Urbanised area” differ between sources.
1) Using the “area-based” approach by UNESCO “World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision” and other sources
for “over-300K city” coordinates led to a large underestimation of number of satellite needed for daily reimaging.
The total size of “Urban, Industry & Transport Lands” estimated as 2.3million sq.km (by Russian Geographic Society [1]);
Urbans only estimated as 1.3 million sq.km by GRUMP/SEDAC [2]. This area size can be shooted and downloaded even
by one Auriga satellite per day (by volume) – but NOT by geometry of targeting!
2) Using GRUMP-based (and other sources) matrix of population density (with our custom-developed scripts) led to
significant overestimation of urbanized area (in terms of square km), with obvious errors in the locations of the northern cities.
System Performance: Reimaging time
Determination of targets: number of different approaches was tested.
3) Using MODIS-based matrix LAND_COVER_CLASSIFICATION_MCD12C1_T1_2011 is productive approach, but 2.5 arc.minutes
resolution images produce many losses inside and near city agglomerates, and using higher resolution data [3] requires
the development of specific software (for modelling the tactics of target selection and retargeting).
Number of salellites here is determined by geometrical conditions, regardless of the target areas or data size. The
limiting factor is the longitudal width of the biggest targets, not the distribution of the targets over Earth surface.
Typical flight scheme (one orbital turn)
When in normal operation, spacecraft must change its orientation
several times per orbital turn according to current mission program.
Shooting
Flight in the
sun pointing
Communication
Passive
flight
Sunlight
Communication
Shooting
(picturing)
Picturing:
for each target – point the satellite optic to the target and get the picture set.
Onboard processing:
compress and store picture data, prepared for downlink.
Downlink:
point the satellite antenna to receiver, connect and send data and telemetry
Receiving:
trace the satellite by GroundStation antenna; receive, correct receiving errors and assemble data;
Processing 1:
correct picture: sensitivity correction, orthorectification: position, scaling and relief correction, picture assembly
Processing 2:
mosaic forming and output data production.
Satellite Earth Observation workflow: tasking & control
Local tasking:
define the list of targets (what will be pictured at nearest turns)
How fast the satellite can rotate? (reaction wheels or gyrodines )
How fast and precise is orientation determination? (Star trackers)
Selection of targets suitable for shooting at one path needed
(existing digital maps and precise dynamic model of satellite)
;@Time Command
@010217:1301151 pos 1287120/002…
@010217:1301280 pos check
@010217:1301290 exp 113
Programming: @010217:1301293 get 3
form the sequence of commands for satellite @010217:1301350 pos 1287148/031…
@010217:1301380 rot 06843/00021…
orientation, timings for each picture and @010217:1301396 get 24
downlink session @010217:1301403 rot 06579/-0003…
Satellite is relatively “dumb”: @010217:1301419 rot 06512/00034…
@010217:1301460 pos 1287121/007…
commands only define the required @010217:1301485 pos check
orientation and angular speed and @010217:1301503 get 3
actions at predefined time. ...
Picturing: for each target, point the satellite optic to the target and get the set of pictures.
At programmed time, onboard computer determine the difference
between current and required orientation and angular speeds, and
control the reaction wheels to achieve requirements (using system
of software-realized PID regulators).
At programmed time, camera start to produce pictures (with
preprogrammed exposure, gain and frame speed).
Onboard processing: compress and store picture data, prepared for downlink.
Digitized picture data from sensor is reformatted and lossless-compressed
by camera controller (accompanied with orientation and position telemetry),
prepared for future transmission to ground station, and save to data storage.
Solar
Housekeeping
Array Computer Telemetry TX
-
ACS Computer Thruster
Command RX
Power Propulsion
Module Control Module
Reaction
wheels:
Sun IMU
Sensors
Battery
Reaction Wheels
X Magnetorquer Fuel Tank
PT
Regulated
Star
Y Magnetorquer Pressure
power to 2Star
x Star Tank tracker:
all payloads tracker Valves
tracker Z Magnetorquer
GPS
receiver 3-Axis
3-AxisMagnetometer
Magnetometer
EO Satellite – structure and workflow: Picturing
Downlink: point the satellite antenna to receiver, connect and send data and telemetry
At the programmed time, the satellite (or antenna only) orientation
will be set to point to the ground station (GS). The angular speed
QPSK
Modulator
during the flight (for all downlink session duration). Horn Antenna and Polarizer
Satellite can get much more photo data than it can transmit to us.
Satellite EO performance – Ground stations
If we need that satellite downlink is possible twice every pass (orbital turn),
than system of inexpensive stations (X/KA-band with 2m antenna) with overlapping coverage need to be organized.
All ground stations based in cities with high speed Internet optical backbone. Data storage of each ground station
is a part of cloud data storage of the system.
Common structure for several EO satellite is possible, with satellite data receive services to third parties.
It is very perspective area for cooperation with many involved companies around the World.
Satellite Earth Observation workflow: Processing
Precise position of image objects now usually determined using search of the well-recognizable
objects on existing high-resolution digital maps.
This way is not suitable for fast-modifying areas, as coasts and meteorological data.
And own satellite targeting error (about 2 arc.second ≈ 10µrad) result of 6m error from 6km.
Cubesat EO payload design: Cubesat specifics
1.5U MISC,
Pumpkin Inc.
3U Dove-1, 6U Platform
Planet Labs Dauria /
SatByul
CubeSat dimensions bring a lot of specific problems:
1.Strong aperture limitations (diameter < 90mm for < 8U Satellites, <240mm for bigger ones)
2.Payload is the biggest part of satellite (50-75% volume), strictly limited by size and weight.
3.Extremely wide temperature range (-70 … +60)
4.Extremely limited electrical power
Additional problems: low budget, limited man-power and equipment.
Cubesat EO payload design: limitations
1. Diffraction limit of optic.
(real GSD >5m for <8U satellites, GSD >2.5m for ~16U satellites)
2. Light sensitivity problems (due to small aperture) and low SNR.
Color SNR problems (only small part of light spectrum used by sensor)
PAN-sharpening and digital picture restoration can be used at post-processing.
3.Fast orbital motion: motion compensation or ultra-short expositions needed.
4.Ultra-precision mechanics (low tolerances): ~= 2…3 sensor pixel size (~10um)
Thermal deformations (avoid by usage low TEC materials: Invar, Carbon-Fiber,
Deformations during orbiting; Fused Silica)
Internal vibration sources (reaction wheels or antenna gimbals)
5.Cost: ultimately different from mass-production. COTS problems.
Biggest part is high-qualified labor cost, not distributed per quantity.
Cost of precision mechanics.
Cost of tests. Risk management. (Un)knowledge management.
6.Space factors: vacuum, thermal, radiation
Plastics and coatings (and even glass) degradation;
Contamination: vapors, electrostatic charge + dusts
Heat dissipation and strong heat gradients
RAD tolerance (total), SEU restoration, sensor degradation
Orientation: Sun protection – covers, baffles, coatings.
Post-processing: GSD and PSF
Cubesat EO payload design: optical schema
View angle: FOV ~= Swath width / Orbit height
Wide-angle mirror telescopes is the challenge (~1degree border)
Big TDI sensor size in comparison of aperture (>60mm)
1.Lens-based telescopes
heavy, but can be used for low resolution (EFL<150mm)
Some times COTS optic can be used,
but it’s resolution is usually pure –
must be carefully selected and reworked.
http://www.telescope-optics.net
Cubesat EO payload design: 90mm optical schema
Main design ideas (6U camera)
COTS optic based with a lot of rework. 61mm aperture
71MPix sensor,
3.1um pixels.
Main design ideas (16U)
Mangin
1 lens Primary Mirror
2 lens
4 lens
Secondary 3 lens
mirror Filter &
Sensor
Main Structure:
1st lens: SiO2 2nd lens SiO2 ; The main interface is the fixed
Reflective coating at back Sensor
(Mangin Primary mirror) plate mountings on the sides of main
structure, screwed to satellite side
SM mount: Invar 32-5 PM baffle: Al
panels. Additional variant is mounting
at the edges of main structure to the
satellite main plate.
Secondary
Mirror: SiO2 Lens 3 4:SiO2 PM is mounted by central tube,
Mount Tube: Invar 32-5
permanently glued into PM hole.
The tube sleeve is screwed to tube
255.941 mm±5mkm The structure sleeve is screwed to
main structure.
Al
SM baffle: Al After PM adjustment sleeves will be
fixed to each other by glue using
special holes.
Outer Shield: Al, 0.3mm, blackened inside Ø258mm