Food is eaten and digested in the body to allow the absorption of

energy and nutrients.

There are two different types of nutrients:

1) macronutrients;

2) micronutrients
Macronutrients
• Carbohydrate
• Protein
• Fat

Micronutrients Water soluble vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins •Vitamin B
• Vitamin A •Vitamin C
Minerals
• Vitamin D • Calcium
• Iron
• Sodium
 Food provides the body with a range of
nutrients, some of which provide energy,
while others are essential for growth and
maintenance of the body.

Macronutrients are measured in grams (g).

carbohydrate protein fat. Water

 Carbohydrates are a key component of
the diet.

There are two types of carbohydrate

which provide the body with energy :
a. sugars
b. starches.

1g of carbohydrate provides 4 kcal

(17kJ).

© Livestock & Meat Commission for Northern Ireland 2015

 Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen.

Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrate

molecule. Examples include:
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose

Disaccharides are formed when two

monosaccharides join together, with the removal of one
molecule of water. Examples include:
• Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
• Lactose (glucose + galactose)
• Maltose (glucose + glucose)
 Polysaccharides are made up of
many monosaccharide molecules joined
together.

Examples include:

• Starch;
• Glycogen;
• Components classified as dietary
fibre such as beta glucan and pectin.
 The body’s tissues require a
constant supply of glucose, which is used
as a fuel.

A constant supply is required as

only a small amount can be stored in the
body, in the form of glycogen.

A small amount can also be

synthesised in the body from protein.
 Some examples of sugar sources (carbohydrate) are
sucrose (found in table sugar), lactose (found in milk), and
fructose (found in fruit).

Some examples of food sources for starchy carbohydrates

are bread, pasta, and cereal.
 Proteins are large molecules, made up of a series of
amino acids.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
There are about 20 different amino acids commonly
found in plant and animal proteins.
 Protein is needed by the body for growth,
development and repair.

Protein can also provide energy.

Protein provides 17kJ per gram.

Animal Plant sources:
sources:
• soya;
• meat; • nuts;
• poultry; • seeds;
• fish; • pulses, e.g.
• eggs; beans,
• milk; lentils;
• dairy foods. • mycoprotein
.
The main source of protein in the diet
of adults in Northern Ireland is meat and meat
products.
 Fat is made up of different types of fatty acids
attached to a glycerol molecule backbone. This is called
a triglyceride.

Depending on their chemical structure, fatty

acids are often classified as:
• saturated fatty acids (also known as ‘saturated fat’ or
‘saturates’);
• monounsaturated fatty acids;
• polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3, omega-6 and
omega-9);
• trans fatty acids.
Fat provides the body with essential fatty acids and energy.

One gram of fat provides 37 kJ.

Fat provides a store of energy for the body.

Fat also provides protection for the major organs in the body.

Fat carries important fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and is

important for their absorption.
Sources of saturated fat in the diet of adults
(19-64 years) in Northern Ireland

• Meat and meat products – 26%

• Cereal and cereal products – 20%
• Milk and milk products – 19%
• Eggs and egg dishes – 3%
• Fat spreads – 13%
• Vegetables and potatoes – 6%
• Fish and fish dishes – 2%
• Vegetables and potatoes – 6%
• Savoury snacks – 2%
• Nuts and seeds – 1%
• Sugars, preserves and confectionary – 5%
• Miscellaneous – 3%
 Saturated fat can be found in meat, coconut oil, palm oil,
cakes, biscuits, and lard.

Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat can be found in

rapeseed oil, olive oil, oily fish, avocado and some margarines
and low fat spreads.
Fat is made up of fatty acids and glycerol.

Types of fatty acids include:

• saturated;
• unsaturated;
- monounsaturated;
- polyunsaturated.

Fat is needed for health, but only in moderate

amounts.
 The micronutrients are divided into:
vitamins;

minerals.

Vitamins are needed in much smaller amounts than

Macronutrients. Amounts are measured in milligrams
(1mg = 0.001g)and micrograms (1μg = 0.001mg).
 Vitamins are found in a wide variety of foods and
they have many uses within the body.

There are two groups of vitamins:

• fat soluble vitamins, e.g. vitamins A, D and K
• water soluble vitamins, e.g. B vitamins and vitamin
C.
 Vitamin A is needed for normal structure and
functioning of the skin and body linings, e.g. in lungs.

If also helps with vision in dim light, as well as

keeping
the immune system healthy.

This vitamin is fat soluble.

 Vitamin D is needed for the absorption of calcium and
phosphorus from foods, to keep bones healthy.

Vitamin D is also a fat soluble vitamin.

A lack of vitamin D causes rickets in children, where

the legs are bent. Osteomalacia occurs in adults
deficient in vitamin D. This causes pain in the bones
and muscles.
 The sources of vitamin D include oily fish, eggs, fortified
cereals and margarine.

The body can make vitamin D when the skin is exposed to

sunlight, i.e. during the summer months in the UK. Therefore, in
the winter, the diet provides the source of vitamin D for most
people.
 B vitamins are water soluble vitamins needed for the
release of energy from food.

There are many different B vitamins and each has a

specific function in the body.
 The B vitamins can be found in a variety of foods, such
as bread, cereals, milk, meat, potatoes, and
fortified breakfast cereals.
Vitamin C is a water soluble vitamin needed for the
normal structure and function of body tissues, e.g.
collagen.

Vitamin C also helps the body to absorb the mineral iron

from non meat sources such as vegetables.

It also assists the healing process.

A lack of vitamin C in the diet causes bleeding gums,

and wounds take longer to heal.

This deficiency disease is called scurvy.

Sources of vitamin C include fresh fruits,
especially citrus fruits and berries, green
vegetables, peppers and tomatoes.
Vitamin C is also found in potatoes (especially in
new potatoes).
Minerals have many uses in the body:
• to form bones and teeth;
• as part of body fluids;
• to help nerves work.

The amount of different minerals needed by the body

changes over time.
Calcium is very important when the bones are
growing.

Calcium is an important mineral needed by the

body:
• to form, strengthen and maintain bones and teeth;
• for normal functioning of muscles;
• for blood clotting.
The sources of calcium are milk, cheese and other dairy
products, some leafy green vegetables such as broccoli,
fortified soya bean products and bread.

Vitamin D helps the body to absorb calcium.

Iron is used by the body to form a substance called
haemoglobin in red blood cells. These transport oxygen
around the body.
Iron is also required for normal metabolism and
removing waste substances from the body.
Adolescent girls and women need more iron than boys
because they lose blood each month through
menstruation.
A lack of iron leads to iron deficiency
anaemia.
 Iron is found in animal and plant sources. Sources
high in iron include liver, red meat, pulses, nuts, eggs,
dried fruits, poultry, fish, whole grains and dark green
leafy vegetables.

Iron from meat sources is easier for the body to

absorb.
Sodium is found in all cells and body fluids.
It helps to regulate body water content and balance
electrolytes.

Sodium is also involved in the use of energy, as well as

the functioning of the central nervous system.

High intakes of sodium are linked to high blood pressure

which increases the risk of stroke and coronary heart
disease.
Sodium is found in very small amounts in raw foods.

Sodium is often added as salt during processing,

preparation, preservation and serving.
 The first mechanical digestion process is mastication.
this function is carried out by the teeth with the help of the
tongue and chewing muscles.
The purpose of mastication:
1. to break down cellulose membranes.
2. to destroy rough food.
3. expand the surface of food that can come into contact with
digestive enzymes.
4. chew food until smooth.
 When the food enters and is chewed, the food mixes
with saliva containing ptialine. this enzyme starts the
chemistry of carbohydrate digestion. this enzyme breaks
down polysaccharides into disaccharides and some glucose
polymers containing 3-9 groups.
 A type of fluid that is continuously secreted by the
salivary gland. Usually the amount secreted is only to keep
the mucous membranes of the mouth and pharynx moist.
However, if food enters the mouth, the amount of secretion
increases.
two types of saliva:
1. Seros secretion
watery and contains ptialin.
2. mucus secretion
it is mucus-like which contains mucin for lubrication.
 Saliva consists of 99.5% water and 0.5% dissolved materials
including ions. ion chloride in saliva serves to activate ptialine.
bicarbonate ions and phosphate ions as buffers. urea and gout help
remove metabolic remnants from the body. There is also an enzyme
that is not secreted by the salivary gland, the lingual lipase enzyme
secreted by the gland on the back surface of the tongue.
1. Depressing pathogenic bacteria and small food
particles.
2. There are factors that can destroy bacteria.
contains antibodies
 The motility associated with the pharynx and
esophagus is swallowing. Swallowing is the whole
process of transferring food from the mouth
through the esophagus to the stomach
1. Swallowing begins when a chewed bolus is
pushed by the tongue behind the mouth
towards the pharynx swallowing starts
voluntarily, pharyngeal and esophageal
•This voluntary stage means that when the
food is ready to be swallowed, consciously
the food is pushed posteriorly into the
pharynx. This pushing is done by pressing
the tongue up and down on the palate
Oropharynx and
esophageal stage
•Peristaltic:
1. Primary peristaltic waves sweep from the tip of the
esophagus. Push the bolus in front of it to browse the
esophagus to enter the stomach. Controlled by the center of
swallowing with innervation of the fagus nerve
2. This second peristaltic wave does not involve the
center of swallowing of the esophageal stretch and
also reflexively increases salivary secretion. The
trapped bolus finally escapes and moves forward
through the effect of a combination of lubrication by
ingested additional saliva and a strong second
peristaltic wave.
•Gastritis
•Gastric Atrophy
•Achlorhydria
•Peptic Ulcher
• FUNCTION OF ENDOCRINE
• FUNCTION OF EXOCRINE
 Pancreatic juice contains enzymes for the
digestion of the three main types of food: protein,
carbohydrates, and fat. It also contains large
amounts of bicarbonate ions, which play an
important role in neutralizing the acid kimus
released by the stomach into the duodenum. All
pancreatic juice enzymes are secreted by the asinus
of the pancreatic gland.
• Amylase: enzyme that convert starch into a simple form such as maltose
or glucose
• Lipase : enzyme that breaks down fat into smaller molecules called fatty
acids and glycerol
• Disaccharide: Enzyme that breaks down two disaccharide bond molecules
into a simpler form of saccharide or just one bond
• Trypsin and chemotripsin: convert proteins into amino acids or proteins in
a simpler form
• Phospholipase: simplifies phospholipid into fatty acids.
• Carboxypeptidase: breaks down protein into amino acids.
• Elastasis: breaks down elastin protein.
• Nuklease: breaks down nucleic acids into nucleotides and nucleosides
•Hormonal arrangement
After the food enters the small intestine, the
secretion of the pancreas becomes abundant, mainly
due to the secretin hormone response. And
cholecystokinin causes a large increase in enzyme
secretion.
•Nerve regulation
When the cephalic and gastric phases of gastric
secretion occur, parasympathetic impulses are
simultaneously delivered along the vagus nerve to
the pancreas, resulting in moderate secretion of
enzymes into the pancreatic acini.
 Spread between the pancreatic alveoli, there
are small groups of epithelial cells that are clearly
separate and real. This group are small islands /
Langerhans islands which together form
endocrine organs.
• Insulin: Reduces blood sugar levels to normal levels
• Glucagon :Raises blood sugar levels to normal levels
• Somatostatin : inhibits insulin secretion, glucagon,
and pancreatic polypeptides
• Disacaridase: Disacarida -> Monosacarida
• Erepsinogen: Erepsin aktive
• Colecictokinin : Hepar -> bile
• Absorb the essence of food
• Chemical digestion of food by enzyme
• Changing the pH of food into base
•Reabsorb water and compact material into
feces
•Absorb vitamins produced by bacteria
•Store fecal matter prior to defecation
• Reabsorption in the large intestine includes:
• Water
• Vitamins – K, biotin, and B5
• Organic wastes – urobilinogens and sterobilinogens
• Bile salts
• Toxins

• Mass movements of material through colon and rectum

• Defecation reflex triggered by distention of rectal walls