Chapter Three

Reviewing the
Literature
1
 CONTENTS
3.1 Definition and concepts of review literature,

3.2 Importance/purposes of related literature,

3.3 Characteristics of related literature,

3.4 Conducting Literature Review (process)

 Paraphrasing
 Incorporating direct quotes

3.5 Presenting Bibliography (Harvard and APA

style)

2
 3.1 Definition and Concepts of
Literature Review
 A LR is a body of text that aims to review the
critical points of current knowledge including
substantive findings as well as theoretical and
methodological contributions to a particular topic.
 A LR is a critical and in-depth evaluation of
previous research and establishes why you are
pursuing particular research program there by
enhancing its relevance.

3
 3.2 Importance/Purposes LR
 According to Kumar (20011), a literature review has
the following functions:
 It provides a theoretical background to your study

 It helps you establish the link between what you are

proposing to examine and what has already been
studied
 It enables you to show how your findings have
contributed to the existing body of knowledge in your
profession.
 It helps you to integrate your research findings into
the existing body of knowledge
 3.2 Importance/Purposes LR…
 In relation to your own study, literature review
can help in four ways.
 Bring clarity and focus to your research
problem;
 Improve your research methodology;
 Broaden your knowledge base in your
research area; and
 Contextualize your findings.

5
3.3 Characteristics of related literature
 Materials surveyed and reviewed should be:

 Recent and timely;

 objective and unbiased;

 Relevant;

 valid and reliable - genuinely original and

true facts or data;
 Scholarly or popular - prestige

 Should not be too few nor too many.

6
 3.4 Conducting Literature Review
 The process of reviewing the related literature
comprise:

1. Active Reading
 At the beginning of your research
 to check what other research has been done
 to focus your ideas
 to explore the context for your project
 During your research
 to keep you interested and up to date with
developments,
 to help you better understand the methods you are
using and the field you are researching, and
 to serve as a source of data; 7
 3.4 Conducting Literature Review…
 After Your research
 to see what impact your own work has had, and
 to help you develop ideas for further research projects
2. Careful Record Keeping
 the author or authors;

 the title of the paper, report or book;

 the date of publication;

 if it is a book or report, the publisher and place of

publication;
 if it is a chapter in an edited book, the title and editor
of the book, and the page numbers of the chapter and
 3.4 Conducting Literature Review…
3. Selective Note- Taking and reviewing
 The process of note- taking can be done either in the
form of paraphrasing or directly quoting the author's
ideas

1. Paraphrasing
 Refers to “restating or rewording a passage from a
text, giving the same meaning in another form" (Hult
1996, p.43.).
 The main objective of paraphrasing is to present an
author's ideas in your own words
 3.4 Conducting Literature Review…
2. Incorporating Direct Quotes

General principles of direct quotes:

 If your quotations are four lines in length or less
(40 words or less), surround them with quotation
marks and incorporate them into your text
 If your quotations are longer than four lines (40
words), set them off from the rest of the text by
indenting five spaces from the left and right margins
and triple-spacing above and below them.
 3.4 Conducting Literature Review…
4. Critical Evaluation

 Evaluate the material and information based on the

following criteria:
 relevance of the work to your topic and starting
question.
 timeliness or recency of the work.

 author of the work ( based on all available

information)
 prestige or nature of the journal (scholarly or
popular press).
 3.4 Conducting Literature Review…
5. Organizing your literature review
 The following points will lead to effective
organization of the related literature:
– Develop an outline or topic headings on which
discussions of a review of the related literature
follows.
– Categorize the evidences of your review in light
of your outline.
– Use your research questions/hypotheses to help
serve as a framework to organize the review.
– Start writing up in coherent manner by giving 12
 3.4 Conducting Literature Review…
 Generally critical reading, critical thinking and
critical assessment and there are four steps
involved in conducting a literature review:
 Searching for the existing literature in your
area of study
 Reviewing the selected literature
 Developing a theoretical framework
 Developing a conceptual framework
 3.5 Styles of Referencing

 Styles of referencing differ can be author-date

systems, numeric systems
 Currently two referencing styles are commonly
used:
 the Harvard style and

 the American Psychological Association (APA)

style, both of which are author-date systems.
 As alternative, numeric systems are used far less
widely.
 It is important to apply an adopted style strictly 14
 Author-date systems
1) The Harvard style

• The Harvard style is an author-date system.

• It usually uses the author’s name and year of

publication to identify cited documents within

the text.

• All references are listed alphabetically at the

end of the text.

15
 The Harvard style...

 Citations in the text

 If the author’s name is part of the statement, put only

the year in brackets:
 e.g. Jones (1992) has provided evidence that these
factors are incomplete.
 If the author’s name is part of the statement or does
not naturally occur in your writing, put the author’s
surname and date in brackets.
 e.g. There is some evidence (Jones 2011) that these
factors are incomplete.
16
If there are two authors, give both:

◦ e.g. It is claimed that government in the information

age will “work better and cost less”(Bellamy and
Taylor 2010, p.41).
Note: if you are giving a direct quotation then you need
to include the page number.
If there are more than two authors, cite only the first
followed by ‘et al.’ (which means ‘and others’):

◦ e.g. …adoptive parents were coping better with the

physical demands of parenthood and found family life
more enjoyable (Levy et al. 2011). 17
 The Harvard style…
 Referencing in the references or bibliography
In the references or bibliography the publications are
listed alphabetically by author’s name, and all
authors’ surnames and initials are normally listed in
full.
If there is more than one work by the same author,
these are listed chronologically.

18
 The Harvard style…
 References – Books
• AUTHOR(S) (Year) Title. Edition. Place of
publication: Publisher.
– e.g. Peter, S.J. (2007) Textiles. 10th ed. New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. → one author
– e.g. David, P. and John, N.B. (2010) Electronic
style: a guide to citing electronic information.
London: Meckler. → Two authors
– e.g. Frank, E. et al. (2011) The reorganized
National Health Service. 6th ed. Cheltenham:
Stanley Thornes. → more than two authors

19
 e.g. KEARNEY, R. and RAMUSSEN, D. (eds.)
(2001) Continental Aesthetics –Romanticism to
Postmodernism: An Anthology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd. → books by one or more editors
 e.g. Yonas, A. (2011) Labor, skills and training.
In: Dessalegn, R. et al, (eds.)The reorganized
National Health Service. 6th ed. Addis Ababa:
Birhanena Selam, pp. 135-155. → book chapter
in the edited book

20
 References – Journal articles

• AUTHOR(S) (Year) Title of article. Title of journal,

Vol. no. (Part no./Issue/Month), Pages, use p. or pp.

• e.g. LU, H. and MIETHE, T.D. (2002) Legal

representation and criminal processing in China.

British Journal of Criminology, 42 (2), pp. 267-280.

21
 2) APA Style

 APA style is a variation on the author-date

system.
 Relatively small but significant differences exist
between the Harvard and APA styles, and
many authors adopt a combination of the two
styles.

22
23
 3) Numeric systems
 Reference in the text

 When using a Numeric system such as the

Vancouver style, references within the project
report are shown by a number that is either
bracketed(1) or in superscript1.
 This number refers directly to the list of references
at the end of the text, and it means it is not
necessary for you to include the authors’ names or
year of publication: ‘Research1 OR Research(1)
indicates that . . . 24
 The use of "Ibid", “Op. Cit." and “Loc.
•
Cit”.
It is now more common to give the shortened form of
previously listed reference notes, using the terms ibid, op cit
and loc cit.
– Ibid signifies the same work as the one cited immediately
before, but a different page
– Op cit refers the reader back to the author’s previously cited
work, but to a different page
– Loc cit refers to a work previously cited and to the same
page in that work.
• They are used in referencing to avoid duplicating the same
reference details in the body of your text and in your reference
list. 25
 Chapter Four
Research Design

26
 Research Design
 Meaning of Research Design

 Features of a Good Design

 Types of Research Designs

 Important Concepts Related to RD

27
 Reflection

What is research design?

 Why we need design?

28
 Research Techniques, Methods and
Methodology
 Research techniques- the behavior and
instruments used in research operations
 examples: scales, recording techniques, content
analysis, longitudinal/cross sectional collection of
data, techniques of processing data, etc.
 Research methods - the behavior and instruments
used in selecting and constructing research
technique.
 Examples: observation, questionnaire, interview,
analysis of records, case study, etc
 Methods are more general than techniques.

 It is the methods that generate techniques.

 Methods and techniques are used in research operation

i.e.,
Collection of data

Statistical processing and analysis (tests)

To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained

 However, in practice, the two terms are taken as

interchangeable and when we talk of research methods we
do, by implication, include research techniques within
their compass.
 Research methodology - is a way to
systematically solve the research problem. It is a
science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
 Methodology helps to understand not only the
products of scientific inquiry but the process itself.
 Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light
on their limitations and resources, clarify their
presuppositions and consequences, relating their
potentialities to the frontiers of knowledge.
 Furthermore, the following questions are usually
answered by carefully designed research methodology:
 Why a research study has been undertaken?

 How was the research problem defined?

 In what way and how was the hypothesis

formulated?
 What data have been collected and what particular
methods has been adopted?
 Why particular technique of analyzing data has
been used ? And a host of similar other questions.
 Meaning of Research Design
 Is a master plan /conceptual structure/ blueprint/
that specifies the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing needed information.
 More specifically, the design decisions happen to be in
respect of:
 What is the study about?

 Why is the study being made?

 Where will the study be carried out?

33
 What types of data are required?

 Where can the required data be found?

 What periods of time will the study include?

 What will be the sample design?

 What techniques of data collection will be

used?
 How will the data be analyzed?

 In what style will the report be prepared?

34
 Therefore, preparation of the research design should

be done with great care as any error in it may upset

the entire project.

 In other words, thoughtlessness in designing the

research project may result in rendering the

research exercise futile/useless.

35
 Characteristics of a Good Design
 The design that clearly stated the objective of the
problem to be studied, the nature of the problem to
be studied,
 The design which is characterized by adjectives like
flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical, etc;
 The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed;
 The design which gives the smallest experimental
error;

36
 Characteristics of a Good
 Design..
The design which yields relevant information and
provides an opportunity for considering many
aspects of a problem;
 The design that assumes the availability and skills
of the researcher
 The design that consider the availability of time
and money for the research work

37
 Types of Research Design
Research
Design

Exploratory
Design

Causal
Secondary Case Descriptive
Data
Experience Pilot /Experimental
Surveys Studies Studies Design
Design
Cross-sectional Study

Longitudinal Study

Experiment

Secondary
Survey Observation
Data Study 38
1. Exploratory Design
 The main purpose is to discover new ideas and
insights
 A very flexible, open-ended process.

 Require qualitative approach

 Exploratory research design uses the
following three methods:
the survey of concerning literature;
the experience survey; and
the analysis of 'insight-stimulating'
examples or case studies

39
 2.Descriptive Research Design

 Describes attitudes, perceptions, characteristics,

activities and situations
 Examines who, what, when, where, why, & how
questions
 Most of the social researches fall under this
category
 Requires mixed method approach

40
3.Experimental design/causal /explanatory

 Provides evidence that a cause-and-effect

relationship exists or does not exist.
 Premise is that something (and independent
variable) directly influences the behavior of
something else (the dependent variable).
 Most practical to talk about associations or
impact of one variable on another.
 Require more of quantitative approach

41
Comparison of Research Designs
Criteria Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Purpose Gain insights , Describe Determine cause-
new ideas things and-effect
relationships

Assumed Minimal Considerable Considerable

background
knowledge
Degree of Very little High High
structure
Flexibility High Some Little
Sample Non- Representativ Representative
representative e

Research Relaxed Formal Highly controlled

environment
Findings Preliminary Conclusive Conclusive
42
Comparison of Research Designs
Criteria Exploratory Descriptive Experimental

Overall Flexible Rigid Rigid

design

Sampling Purposive Random Random

Design

Statistical No pre planned Pre planned Pre planned design

design design for analysis design for for analysis
analysis

Observatio Unstructured Structured or well Structured or well

nal design instruments for thought out thought out
collection of data instruments for instruments for
collection of data collection of data

Operational No fixed decisions Advanced Advanced decisions

design about the decisions about about operational
operational operational procedures.
procedures procedures.
43
 Research Design – Approaches
 Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Mixed

44
 Comparison of approaches
45

Quantitative: Mixed Qualitative:

Deductive Inductive
Tests hypotheses Produces theories
Positivism Constructivism/interpretivism
Objectivism Subjectivism
Employs measurement Does not employ measurement
Macro Micro
Detached researcher Involved researcher
 Comparison of approaches
46

Quantitative: Mixed Qualitative:

Measures objective facts Constructs social meaning

Focuses on variables Focus on interactive processes
Value free Values are present
Reliability is key validity is key
Independent of context Context constrained
Many cases Few cases
Statistical analysis Thematic analysis
 Which is the “Best” Research Design &
approach?
 “You cannot put the same shoe on every
foot.”
• It depends on the:
– problem of interest,
– level of information needed,
– resources,
– researcher’s experience, etc.

47
 Group Discussion
 Based on the information, materials and the
guideline your facilitator provides you, work on the
in text citation and referencing.
 Determine the research type, design/strategy,
methods/techniques and data analysis
techniques you apply to tackle the research
questions you have already formulated.

48
 Sampling Design
– Census vs. Sample Survey
– The Need for Sampling
– Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
– Steps in Sample Design
– Types of Sampling
– Sampling Error and Sampling Bias
– Sample Size Determination

49
Definition of concepts
 Population (finite or infinite) refers to any
collection of specified group of human beings or of
non-human entities
 A survey conducted based on the basis of the
entire population is known as census survey.
 A sample (n) is a subset of a population (N) to
which the researcher has selected with a due care
and intends to generalize the results of the study to
the entire population.
 Survey conducted on the basis of sample is sample
survey 50
 Definition of concepts…
 Sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining a
sample from a given population.
 Sampling Frame: - A list of every individual in the
population - Frame is either constructed by the
researcher or some existing list of population is
used
 Sampling frame should be a good representative of
the population and as far as possible free from:
 Incompleteness

 Inaccurateness
51
 Out-of-date
 When do we use census?
 Two conditions are appropriate for census study:

 when the population is small ( for populations of

under 50 it is usually more sensible to collect data
from the entire population)
 The variability is high (when the elements are
quite different from each other)

52
 Why sampling?
 Much of our day to day information is based on
samples, because measuring everything could be:
 too slow, too expensive, impractical,
uneconomical, time consuming and inaccurate.
 Sampling makes possible the study of a large,
heterogeneous population.
 So, sampling is for:

 economy,

 speed,

 accuracy.
53
Disadvantages of Sampling
 If sampling is biased, or not representative, or too
small, the conclusion may not be valid and reliable.
 If the population is very large and there are many
sections and subsections, the sampling procedure
becomes very complicated.
 If the researcher does not possess the necessary
skill and technical knowhow in sampling procedure.

54
 Characteristics of a good sample design
 Truly representative

 Having small sampling error

 Economically viable

 Systematic bias is controlled (in a better way)

 Results can be applied to the population in general

with a reasonable level of confidence ⇒ reliability
 Optimum size (adequately large)

 Similar to population – should have all the

characteristics that are present in the population
55
Steps in Sampling Design
 Defining the population – target population

 Listing the population – sampling frame

 Selecting a representative sample – based on

appropriate method (probability or non-
probability)
 Obtaining an adequate sample size –

 For statistical measurement > 30 sample size

(Stutely 2003) or
 Use this formula n = N__
1+NE² , (Slovin 1960) 56
 How to apply the formula
 Determine the size of the population.
 Decide on the margin of error. (As much as
possible the margin of error should not be
higher than 5%. Probably 3% is an ideal one)
 Determine sample size
Slovin Formula:
n= N__
1+NE²
n = sample size
N = the size of the population
e = the margin of error
 Compute the sample proportion by dividing
the sample obtained by the population.

57
 Types of sampling
Non-probability sampling
Probability sampling
58 • The probability of each case being
• The chance, or selected from the total population is
probability, of each case not known, the selection of
being selected from the sampling units is quite
population is known/non- arbitrary/heavily rely on personal
judgment
zero probability and • The researcher does not have
usually equal for all sufficient information about
cases. population to undertake probability
• This means that it is sampling.
possible to answer • The researcher may not know who,
research questions and to or how many people or events,
achieve objectives that make up the population.
require you to estimate
statistically the
characteristics of the  Convenience,
 Simple random,
population from sample
• Associated with survey
 Quota,
 Systematic
and experimentrandom,
research  Purposive,
 Stratified,  Snowball
 Cluster, Multi stage
Types of Sampling

59
 Probability sampling – Simple Random Sampling
1) The lottery system:
– a set of tickets or cards equal to the number of the population
to be prepared
– Will be thoroughly mixed up and then n tickets will be drawn
one by one.

2) Coin filliping method

– decide whether the unit which gets a tail or head needs to be
included in the sample.
– A coin will be tossed/flipped

3) Using the Random Number Table

– random numbers are numbers that show no pattern

and each digit is equally likely 60
 Probability sampling – Systematic Random Sampling

• Systematic random sampling requires the

complete list of population and the following
procedures could be followed:
– Population has N units.
– Line-up all N units
– Plan to sample n units
– The sampling interval= N/n------K
– Randomly select a number between 1 and
K (call it j)
– Select the ith unit and every kth unit after
that
61
 Probability sampling – Stratified Random Sampling

 Involves a process of stratification or

segregation.
 It divide or classify the population into strata, or
groups of some common characteristics.
 E.g. sex, race, or institutional affiliation, level of
management…
 Separate samples are then drawn from each
stratum using systematic or simple random
sampling techniques either proportionately or
disproportionately.
62
 Probability sampling – Stratified Random Sampling
Example: Assume the study Question:
population constitutes:
Determine samples to be
– 10 top mangers, 30 middle
managers, 50 lower-level selected from each stratum by
mangers, 100 supervisors, using proportionate stratified
500 clerks, 20 secretariats, sampling.
and142 sample size is
needed
Stratum-job level No. of applications Sampling fraction No of sample
Top mgt 10 20% 2
Middle level mgt 30 20% 6
Lower-level mgt 50 20% 10
Supervisors 100 20% 20
Clerks 500 20% 100
Secretaries 20 20% 4
Total 710 142 63
 Probability sampling – Cluster Sampling

 Cluster sampling involves division of elements

of a population into groups-the groups are
termed clusters
 For cluster sampling, your sampling frame is the
complete list of clusters rather than a
complete list of individual cases within the
population.
 You then select a few clusters, normally using
simple random sampling.
 Data are then collected from every case within
64
 Probability sampling – Cluster Sampling
 The techniques has three main stages:
 choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame
 Number each of the clusters with a unique number.
The first cluster is numbered 0, the second 1 and so
on.
 Select your sample using some form of random
sampling.

Note:
– Selecting clusters randomly makes cluster sampling a
probability sampling technique

65
 Non-Probability Sampling

Basic features
can work well for exploratory studies
useful if it is not important to obtain accurate
estimates of population characteristics
the units are selected at the discretion of researcher
cheaper and easier to carry out than probability
designs
the results cannot be generalized
one cannot estimate parameters from sample
statistics
Sampling error of such samples cannot be
determined
Not feasible to apply statistical method
Such samples would not be a representative of the
population 66
 Non-Probability Sampling - Convenience sampling

 Involves collecting information from members of

the population who are conveniently available to
provide it.
 Criteria: The availability/ the ease of obtaining/
and willingness to respond
Examples:
 staff ‘suggestion box’
 person interviewed at random in shopping
center for a television program about the extent
of price of items
 it may be convenient and economical to sample
employees in a nearby area
 during election times TV channels often present
man-on-the-street interviews to reflect public
opinion.
67
 Non-Probability Sampling - Quota sampling

 A type of stratified sample in which selection of cases

within strata is entirely non-random.
 It tries to address the issue of representativeness
(gender: two categories: male, female; class level:
graduate and undergraduate, family social-economic
class: upper, middle, lower)

68
 Non-Probability Sampling - Purposive/judgmental sampling

 The researcher uses his own judgment about which

respondents to choose, and picks only those best
meet the purposes on the study.
 Expert sampling: involves selecting persons with
known experience or expertise in an area.
 With purposive sampling the sample is ‘hand
picked’ for the research.

Example:
• A Local government uses purposive samples when it seeks
information from cities with a reputation for excellent
69
administration (about their experiences, with outsourcing services,
 Non-Probability Sampling – Snowball/referral
sampling
 Analogy: a snowball, begins small but becomes
bigger and bigger as it rolls downhill.
 Used when members of a population cannot be
located easily by other methods and where the
members of a population know or are aware of
each other.
 Individuals are discovered initially and then this
group is used to locate others (the names &
addresses- referal) who possess similar
characteristics and who, in turn, identify others.
Example:
 we may want to sample very small populations who
are not easily distinguishable from the general
population or who do not want to be identified, for
example drug users, homeless…
70
 Sampling Error

 It is created because of chance variation..

 Sampling error is unavoidable: It can be reduced by

two factors:
 a larger sample produces a smaller sampling
error
 a homogenous population produces a smaller
sampling errors
 However, it is impossible to avoid the sampling
error completely.

71
 Sampling/systematic bias
 It results from some imperfect aspect of the research
design or from a mistake in the execution of the
research/administrative error (data processing error,
sample selection error, etc).
 Non-sampling Errors

– An inadequate sampling frame

– Non-response from participants
– Field errors
– Response errors, accessibility bias
– Coding and data entry errors
– Defective measure device 72
 Chapter Five
Research Proposal

 After the selection of a research problem and setting

proper direction for investigation, the researcher should
write out a proposal, synopsis, or plan for research.

 What is the Research proposal ?

 The research proposal is a systematic plan, which brings
to focus the preliminary planning that will be needed to
accomplish the purpose of the proposed study. It is just
like a blueprint, which the architect peppers before the
construction of building starts.

73
The importance of research proposal

• It serves as a basis for determining the

feasibility of the project.
• It provides a systematic plan of procedure
for the researcher to follow.
• It gives the research supervisor a basis
for guiding the researcher while
conducting the study.
• It reduces the probability of costly

mistakes. 74
 Components of the Research Proposal

 Three parts of proposal

A. The preliminaries
B. The body
C. The supplemental
A. The preliminaries
• Title / cover page
• Table of content
• Abstract

75
 B. The Body
1. The problem and its Approach
1) Introduction
2) Statement of the problem
3) Objectives of the Study
4) Significance of the study
5) Delimitation of the study
6) Definition of used terms
7) Research methodology
8) Organization of the paper
2. Review of related literature

76
C. The supplemental
1) Budget and time schedule
2) Bibliography

77
 A) The preliminaries
1) Title or cover page
 The title should not be too lengthy or too
involved.
 The title should not be too brief or too short.

 The title should not be burdened by pompous

words and should not include terms of
unscientific; rhetorical, argumentative,
emotional, or biased nature.

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2) Table of content
 In this section the major and sub
topics in the proposal should be
appear along with the page
number.
 It out line each topic and show the
reader where each title is located
in the proposal. 79
3) Abstract
• also known as Executive summary, Synopsis,
and also Epitome.
• Present the highlight of the main aspects of the
proposal concisely and clearly.
• Therefore, it starts by stating the problem to be
solved through the purpose, expected outcomes,
beneficiaries, expected impact of the work being
proposed and the methods to be used.

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 B) The body of the proposal
1. THE PROBLEM AND ITS APPROACH

1) Introduction/Background:

This section should contain a rationale for your

research which answers the following questions:
– Why are you undertaking the research project?

– Why is the research needed?

This rationale should be placed within the context of

existing research or within your own experience and/or
observation.
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2) Statement of the problem
• More specifically, statement of the problem is
targeted towards the following:
– stating the background facts, which justify
the study to be in order:
– developing hypotheses or key research
questions, which may show the direction of
the whole exercise

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3) Objectives of the study
• Typically very brief
• Both general and specific objectives
– The general objectives provide a short
summary of the scientific goal being
pursued by the research
– The specific objectives are operational
in nature. They may indicate specific
types of knowledge to be pursued.
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 4) Significance of the study

• The following are some of the points in which the

justification stresses:
– A wide time gap between the earlier study and the
present one.
– Existence of knowledge gaps that were uncovered
by the previous studies.

– Lack /Shortage of information about a problem.

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 5) Definition of Terms or Concepts
• The technical terms or words and phrases
having special meanings need to be defined
operationally by the help of special
dictionaries.

85
 6) Delimitations of the Study
 Boundaries of the study should be made clear with
reference to:
 the scope of the study by specifying the areas to
which the conclusions will be confined, and
 the procedural treatment including the sampling
procedures, the techniques of data collection and
analysis, the development of measuring tools and
their use in the study.

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7) Limitations of the study
 The possible sources of the limitations of the
study include:
 Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the
researcher adapted.
 Lack of access to the right data.

 Poor choice/development/ delivery of instruments

 Sampling restriction

 Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas

 Usual time borne situation in the study site

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 8) Research methodology

 Clearly indicate the methods of data collection

either within a quantitative or qualitative
methodology; as well as the techniques for data
collection, e.g. questionnaires, and
measurement (the validation of the techniques).
 A research proposal should clearly indicate the
population from which the researcher will draw
his/her sample, and describe the procedure
he/she will use to select the sample.
 In this section, the researcher describes how
to organize, analyze, and interpret data. The
details of the statistical techniques and the
rationales for using such techniques should be
described in the research proposal.

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 In brief it include:
a) Research Design
b) Sampling Design
c) Data Collection
d) Data Analysis
e) Limitation

89
 9) Organization of the study
 This section explains what each chapter of the research
report consists of.

Eg. The study will be organized into four chapters:

 The first chapter deals with the problem and its approach.
The second chapter will be concerned with presenting the
review of the related literature. The third chapter will threat
the analysis of the data collected. The fourth chapter will
bring to an end this study with summary, conclusion and
recommendation.

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 2. Review Of Related Literature

 The theoretical and empirical

framework from which the problem
arises must be briefly described.
 A brief resume of related studies
found in journals, magazines,
abstracts and reports should be made.

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c) The supplemental
1) Bibliography

This is a section where a list of books,

journals and other documents is offered.
• The researcher should list all reference
materials that he has used in selecting the
problem and which he may used during
the conduct of study.

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2) Time Schedule

 The researcher should also prepare a realistic

time schedule for completing the study within
the time available.
 Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates
for the completion of each phase help the
researcher to use his time systematically.

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3) Budget Schedule

 The research proposals which are submitted to

governmental or non-governmental organizations
for financial assistance should also include a budget
schedule.
 This is a financial breakdown that helps to estimate
the cost of the study.

94