BIOLOGY 30

Unit C – Cell Division, Genetics, and

Molecular Genetics
Chapter 18
BIOLOGY 30
UNIT C
Day 19 – DNA Structure
Pages 624-629
Agenda
• Key Figures
• Some History
Names to Remember
• Miescher
• Levene
• Griffith
• Avery, MacCleod and McCarty
• Hershey and Chase
• Chargaff
• Rosalind Franklin
• Watson and Crick
History
• Early Studies:
• What are genes?
• 1920  genes located on chromosomes
• Some substance on chromosome was genetic material
• Chromosomes made up of proteins, DNA, and RNA

• Proteins were complex  scientists leaned toward thinking they

were the genetic material

• 1950s  clear DNA (not proteins) was hereditary material

DNA History
• Miescher – 1969
• Used term nucleic acid  slightly acidic, phosphorous-containing
substance

• Later  deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, was the key element

• Ribonucleic acid, RNA, plays role in gene expression

• Levene
• Isolated RNA and DNA
Frederick Griffith - 1928
• Studied 2 strains of the bacterium Streptococcus
pneumonia

• S (smooth ) strain causes pneumonia

• R (rough strain) – lack capsule – nonpathogenic

Results
• Griffith’s conclusion:

• R bacteria had been

transformed into pathogenic S
bacteria by an unknown
heritable substance from the
dead S cells that allowed the R
cells to make capsules

• Griffith called this phenomenon

the transforming principle
• Griffith died during WW2,
others carried on his work

• Griffith Video
Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty - 1944
• Tried to identify agent of transformation

• Focused on: DNA, RNA, protein

• Findings:
• Treating pathogenic bacteria with a protein or RNA destroying
enzyme  transformation still occurred

• Treating pathogenic bacteria with DNA destroying enzyme 

transformation did not occur

• DNA was responsible for transformation!!!

Hershey and Chase - 1952
• Tried to support Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty

• Used viruses called bacteriophages  infect bacteria

• Viruses are simple, usually DNA surrounded by a protective

protein coat

• Used radioactive labelling

• Labeled protein with radioactive sulfur
• Labeled DNA with radioactive phosphorus

• Virus can only reproduce if it takes over infected host cell’s

machinery to produce it’s own DNA and protein coats
cells

(blue)
Hershey and Chase - 1952
• Results:
• Proteins labelled  radioactivity (sulfur) remained outside of
bacterial cells

• DNA labelled  radioactivity (phosphorus) found inside bacterial

cells

• Conclusion:
• Phage DNA entered bacterial cells while phage proteins did not

• DNA, not protein, functions as the genetic material of the T2 phage

• Hershey-Chase Experiment (video)

BIOLOGY 30
UNIT C
Day 20 – DNA Structure and Replication
Pages 624-634
Agenda
• Review
• Structure of DNA
• RNA
• DNA Replication (S phase)
Review: Names to Remember
• Miescher
• Levene
• Griffith
• Avery, MacCleod and McCarty
• Hershey and Chase
Structure of DNA
• Composition
• 4 building blocks  nucleotides (monomers)
1. 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose – DNA; ribose – RNA)
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogenous base (4 types)
• 2 bases, adenine (A) and guanine (G) have double-ringed structure 
called purines
• 2 bases, thymine (T) and cytosine (C), have single-ringed structure 
called pyrimidines
• Uracil (U) replaces thymine in RNA
DNA
• Generic DNA nucleotide

• Phosphate on 5’ carbon
• Base on 1’ carbon
• Hydroxyl on 3’ carbon

• RNA nucleotide would

have a hydroxyl off of
the 2’ carbon

• Carbons labelled
clockwise from oxygen
DNA versus RNA Nucleotides

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-molecular-biology/26-
structure-of-dna-and-rna/nucleotides.html
 purine
nucleotides

pyrimidine
nucleotides
• Nucleotide +
nucleotide 
phosphodiester bonds
between the
phosphate and sugar
groups – backbone

• Bond between the 5’

end with the
phosphate group and
3’ end with the –OH
group

• Handrails (sides) of
the ladder
Phosphodiester Bond/Linkage
• Hydrogen
bonds form
between
nitrogen
bases

• 3 between
guanine and
cytosine

• 2 between
adenine and
thymine

• Rungs of the
ladder
Chargaff’s Rule (late 1940s)
• Levene thought nucleotides present in equal amounts

• Chargaff provided support that they were present in

characteristic proportions

• A-T and G-C

https://moodle.clsd.k12.pa.us/district_videos/Biology/iText/produc
ts/0-13-115540-7/ch12/ch12_s1_4_pr.html
http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/campbell-biology-in-focus-
2nd-edition-chapter-13-solutions-9780321962751
Three Dimensional Structure of DNA
• 1950s – Rosalind Franklin and X-ray crystallography
• Mathematical equations translated patterns into information
regarding 3-D shapes of molecules

https://sketchingscience.wordpress.com/2013/07/25/rosalind-franklin/
 Rosalind Franklin and X-Ray
Crystallography

https://sketchingscience.wordpress.com/2013/07/25/rosalind-
franklin/
http://slideplayer.com/slide/699047/
 Matching Up Nucleotides
• A-T
• G-C
• Purine – pyrimidine

• Antiparallel
• Run 5’ on one strand
http://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-7-nucleic-acids/71-dna-
structure-and-replic/structure-of-dna.html
and 3’ on the
complementary strand
• Very important for DNA
replication and protein
synthesis
5’ to 3’
•

https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/bio/DNA+Replication
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
• 3 main differences
1. Ribose instead of deoxyribose
2. Uracil instead of thymine
3. Single not double stranded
DNA versus RNA

https://www.whatisdna.net/wiki/rna-vs-dna/
Genes and the Genome
• Gene – functional subunit of DNA
• Directs production of one or more polypeptides (proteins)

• Genome – all the DNA carried in each cell of organism

• DNA and the genome contain genes and non-coding portions

of DNA

• Chromosomes have different numbers of genes

• Human genome = 3 billion base pairs – approx. 25000 genes

• Protozoan = 650 billion base pairs – approx. 7000 genes
DNA Replication
• Video: Intro to replication

• S phase
• Replicates all DNA with error rate of about 1 per one billion
nucleotides

• Semi-conservative replication
• Each new molecule of DNA contains one original strand and one
newly made strand
 Semi-Conservative Replication

https://www.slideshare.net/mbarshan/dna-replication-in-eukaryotes-
and-prokaryotes

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-molecular-
biology/27-dna-replication-transcri/semi-conservative.html
Initiation, Elongation, Termination
• Initiation
• Replication origin
• Bacteria have a single one; eukaryotes may have thousands on one
chromosome

• Helicases
• Group of enzymes that bind to replication origin
• Break H-bonds
• Create replication bubble with tow Y-shaped areas at each end 
replication forks

• Single-strand binding proteins (SSBPs) stabilize DNA strands

• Single strands are now templates for complementary base pairing

to create molecules of DNA
Helicase Opening Replication Bubble

http://study.com/academy/lesson/dna-replication-review-of-enzymes-
replication-bubbles-leading-and-lagging-strands.html
Initiation (continued)
• Enzymes that build DNA cannot start the process
• They can only add nucleotides to an existing chain based
paired to the template strand

• RNA strand (primer) is actually used to start the process

• Synthesized by the enzyme primase

• Primase uses the DNA parent strand as template.

Primers are approx. 5-10 nucleotides long

• DNA strand starts from 3’ end of RNA primer

Primase adds the RNA Primer

http://javierbiology.weebly.com/dna-replication1.html
DNA Replication: Elongation and
Termination
• DNA polymerase adds DNA nucleotides to primer

• Creates a complementary strand : A-T and G-C

• Elongation can ONLY take place in 5’ to 3’

direction (adding nucleotides to the 3’ –OH hydroxyl
group of previous nucleotide)
5’ to 3’ Direction

https://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/5%27+to+3%27+explain
ed
Add to 3’ – OH Every Time
NEW
PHOSPHODIESTER
LINKAGE
Review
• What enzyme breaks H-bonds in double helix?
• Which enzyme adds RNA primer?
• Which enzyme adds DNA nucleotides?
DNA Replication: Leading and Lagging
Strands

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-dna-replication
DNA Replication: Leading and Lagging
Strands

http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/bb331/lecture06/FigH2.html
 Leading Strand and Lagging
• 5’  3’ direction.
Continuously.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-
http://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/03/difference-between- genetic-material/dna-replication/v/leading-and-lagging-strands-in-
leading-strand-and.html#.WekB2FtSzIU dna-replication
Lagging Strand
• Replicated in short segments –
Okazaki fragments

• Still added in 5’ to 3’ directions

• Primase creates many primers.

DNA polymerase adds to primers
and detaches when gets to next
primer

• Primase “jumps back” into opening

fork

• DNA ligase forms bonds between

Okazaki fragments (glues fragments
together)

• Video: DNA Replication

The Amoeba Sisters!
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qSrmeiWsuc
DNA Polymerase
• Does not just add nucleotides in 5’ to 3’ direction…

1. Adds nucleotides in 5’ to 3’ direction

2. Removes RNA primer fragments
3. Proofreads
1. Recognizes hydrogen bonding errors
2. Replaces incorrect nucleotides
Termination
• “Replication Machine” – collection of polypeptides
(enzymes and other proteins) and DNA interacting at
replication fork

• Replication machine comes apart

• 2 strands of DNA rewind back into double helix structure

• http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/instructor/
animations/dna_replication/index.html
Telomeres

https://www.completewellnessreport.com/telomeres-keeping-us-
younger-healthier-longer/
Telomere
• Ends of chromosomes
• Specific nucleotide
sequences that repeat (i.e.
TTAGGG)

• Do not contain genes

• Protects genes from

degradation

• Thought to play role in https://www.tasciences.com/what-is-a-telomere/

aging and preventing
cancer
Telomere Shortening
• The end Okazaki
fragment can not
produce a new primer
Quiz Time
Quiz Time
Quiz Time
Quiz Time
• Helicase ________________ ,while DNA
Polymerase______________
A. Breaks the phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides,
matches exactly the base pairs to one another
B. Breaks the hydrogen bonds between nucleotides,
complementary base pairs to one another
C. Forms phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides,
complementary base pairs to one another
D. Forms hydrogen bonds between nucleotides, matches
exactly the base pairs to one another
BIOLOGY 30
UNIT C
Day 21 – Protein Synthesis: Transcription and
Translation
Pages 636 – 642
Agenda
• Review
• Mini Quiz
• Transcription
• Translation
Review
• Helicase
• Primase
• DNA Polymerase
• Ligase

• Okazaki fragments

• Difference b/w leading and lagging strands

• Videos – Replication Fork + Replication

Mini Quiz
Protein Structure
• Frederick Sanger
• Proteins consist of amino acids
• Specific sequences of amino acids determine chemical properties
of protein
• Proteins determine structure, function, and development of cells

• Video: Protein Structure

Protein Structure

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/proteins/
Proteins
• Combinations of 20 amino acids (hundreds or thousands)

• DNA determines the sequence of amino acids  controls

proteins cells make

• Enzymes, structural, hormones, antibodies

• One gene, one protien

Gene Types
• Regulatory Genes
• Regulate activity of other genes: activators/repressors
• Create proteins that regulate other genes

• Structural Genes
• Produce proteins that are part of physical structures

• Oncogenes
• Normally directs cell growth
Central Dogma of Gene Expression

http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/gb-final%20exam.htm
The Genetic Code

http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol114/Chap05/Chapter05.ht
ml
Genetic Code
• 3 bases = codon = 1
amino acid

• Genetic code is in
mRNA not DNA

• Some codons do not

code for amino acids
(initiating and
terminating codons)
Why 3 “Letter” Codons
• 20 amino acids

• 1 base = 4 combinations

• 2 bases (AA, AT, AG, AC, TT, TA, TG, etc) = 16 possible
combinations

• 3 bases = 64 different codes

Characteristics of the genetic code

1. It is redundant
• More than one codon can code for the same amino
acid
2. It is continuous
• The genetic code reads as a series of 3 letter
codons without spaces or overlap, knowing where
to start and stop is essential
3. It is nearly universal
• Almost all organisms build proteins with the same
genetic code, important implications for genetic
technology
Genetic Code
3a) CCA  proline
3b) AUG  methionine
3c) GCA  alanine
4. UAA, UAG, UGA
5. CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG
RNA
1. Ribose
2. Uracil
3. Single Strand
Transcription

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-
central-dogma/transcription-of-dna-into-rna/a/overview-of-transcription
5’ to 3’ Direction

http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/250/250S11_8print.html
Sense and Anti-Sense Strands (Different
from McGraw-Hill)
• Sense strand = coding strand  segment of DNA running
5’ to 3’ = same sequence as mRNA

• Anti-sense strand  runs 3’ to 5’ = template strand

• Video http://www.majordifferences.com/2015/01/difference-between-sense-and-antisense.html#.VVIaIpMXgqg
Transcription
• mRNA is building itself in the 5’ to 3’ direction off of the
template or anti-sense strand
• The template strand is being “read” in the 3’ to 5’ direction
6. METHIONINE – PROLINE- THREONINE – THREONINE
7A. AUG ACG GAG GGG UAU UCU UAA
7B. METHIONINE – THREONINE – GLUTAMATE –
GLYCINE – TYROSINE - STOP
Transcription Videos
• Transcription Video
• RNA Processing Video
• RNA Processing (Spliceosomes)
Translation – mRNA to Polypeptide
Translation – mRNA to Polypeptide
• mRNA moves from nucleus
to cytoplasm

• Finds ribosome

• Transfer RNA (tRNA) –

amino acid carrier
• Synthesized from DNA
• Single stranded RNA
nucleotides (about 75 bases
long)
• One end of tRNA attaches to
amino acid
• Other end has anticodon
(complementary to codon on https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-
mRNA) central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/a/trna-and-ribosomes
Translation

https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/230/Protein+Translation
Ribosome
• rRNA + protein
• Made in nucleoli

• Hold mRNAs, tRNAs,

and amino acids to http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/~gkaiser/SoftChalk%20BIOL%20230/Molecul
ar%20Genetics%20Review/translation/translation_print.html
assemble amino acids
into new protein

• Video: ribosomes
Translation
• DNA instructions  mRNA  tRNA + amino acids 
proteins

• Order of codons on mRNA dictates order of tRNA

anticodons and amino acids

• Amino acids brought in one at a time on tRNAs matching

up anticodon with codon

• Stops when “stop” codon is present

• Start in “P” site, adds in the “A” site, “E” site

Translation Initiation
Translation Termination
• Protein Synthesis
• Translation Video
Quiz Time
Quiz Time
• The enzyme that joins a phosphate group to ribose is
A. DNA ligase
B. DNA polymerase
C. RNA polymerase
D. restriction enzyme
Quiz Time
• The number of amino acids in a polypeptide coded by a
gene 600 nucleotides long is
A. 200
B. 300
C. 600
D. 1800
Quiz Time
• The initiation codon in protein synthesis in eukaryotes is
A. AGG
B. AUG
C. CGU
D. AAU
Quiz Time
• A gene in E. coli bacteria specifies a protein, part of
whose amino acid sequence is:
•
• -Alanine-Proline-Tryptophan-Serine-Glutamate-
•
• The DNA sequence specifying this part of the protein
could be
A. –CGG-GGT-ACC-AGC-CTC-
B. –GCT-CCA-TGG-TCG-CAG-
C. –CGG-GGT-ACC-AGC-CUU-
D. –GCU-CCA-UGG-UCG-CAG-
BIOLOGY 30
UNIT C
Day 22 – Mutations and Genetic
Recombination
Pages 643 – 648
Agenda
• Review + Translation
• Mutations and Mutagens
• DNA Repair
• Genetic Variation
• Mini Quiz
Review
• What way do you build the RNA transcript in
transcription?
• What is another name for the template strand?
• What does RNA polymerase do?

• What is the P site for in translation?

• What is the A site for?
• What is the E site for?
• When does a release factor come in?
Mutations
• Gene Mutation
• A change in base sequence of organism’s DNA

• Chromosomal Mutation
• Large alterations that can affect structure and/or number of chromosomes

• Gene or Point Mutations

• Alteration of base sequence of individual genes

• Usually DNA repair enzymes detect and fix altered DNA

• In case of failure  permanent mutation
• DNA change  mRNA change  amino acid sequence change 
altered protein
Passing On Mutations
• All mutations are inheritable
• Copied during DNA replication and passed on to daughter cells

• Not all mutations are passed on to future generations

• Mutation must be in germ cell of gamete to affect offspring

• Body cell mutations  somatic cell mutations

• Cancer

• Reproductive cell mutations  germ line mutations

• Mutations passed to offspring
Types of Mutations
• Point
• Affects one or a few nucleotides
• Can be substitution, deletion, insertion

• Frame shift
• Insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides

• Silent
• No effect on cell’s proteins or metabolism
• Missense
• Altered protein
• Nonsense
• Premature “stop” codon
Point Mutation

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-types-of-mutation-are-
there
Silent Mutation

http://study.com/academy/lesson/effects-of-mutations-on-protein-
function-frameshift-silent-nonsense-missense-mutations.html
Missense Mutation

http://gkrohn2015.blogspot.ca/2015/10/mutations-and-disorders-
post.html
Nonsense Mutation

http://study.com/academy/lesson/stop-codon-mutation-
sequence-lesson-quiz.html
Point Mutations
Frameshift Mutation

https://www.quora.com/What-is-frameshift-mutation-and-what-
are-the-effects-of-it
Other Mutations
• Chromosomal
• Translocation – relocation of groups of bases from one part of
genome to another. Fragments break off and exchange places

• Inversions
• A section of a chromosome gets reversed in orientation, the gene
may be disrupted
Causes of Mutations
• Spontaneous Mutations
• Occur naturally within cells
• Incorrect base pairing by DNA polymerase, other errors during DNA
replication or protein synthesis

• Induced Mutations
• Caused by agent outside the cell
• Mutagens are substances that cause an increased rate of mutation
Physical Mutagens
• Cause physical changes
in structure of DNA

• Tear through DNA and

cause point mutations or
loss of large portions of
DNA

• X-rays
• UV rays (skin cancer)
Chemical Mutagens
• A molecule that can
enter the nucleus of a
cell and induce
mutations by reacting
chemically with DNA
• May insert itself in DNA
– causing frameshift or
substitution
• May have base pairing
properties similar to
another base
• Ex. Carcinogens
DNA Repair
• Double strand provides mechanism for repair
• The in tact chain can be used as template for damaged
strand

• DNA polymerase removes and replaces wrong

nucleotides

• Nucleases (DNA repair enzymes) patrol and repair as well

Genetic Variation
• Mutations can accumulate over time

• Can use these to track evolution of different species

• Mitochondrial and Chloroplast DNA

• Have own DNA that is replicated, transcribed, and translated
separately from nuclear DNA
• Thought these organelles used to be their own organisms that were
engulfed by a larger one – Endosymbiont Theory

• mtDNA being used to look at information about history of

individuals
• Where does most of cytoplasm come from in organism’s cells?
Genetic Variation and Evolution
• Same mutations in mtDNA  likely have recent maternal
ancestor

• 2 Theories of Modern Humans

• Multiregional
• Homo sapiens evolved simultaneously around the world from Homo
erectus
• Monogenesis
• Modern ethnic groups are descendants of second migration of Homo
sapiens – mtDNA supports this theory!!!
• mtDNA from populations other than Africa have been traced back to
Africa and not elsewhere
Quiz Time
• In a silent mutation
A. the resulting protein is totally changed
B. the resulting protein has one or two amino acids
different from the original
C. there is no change to the amino acid sequence
D. a premature “stop” codon is generated
Quiz Time
• Physical mutagens tear DNA whereas chemical mutagens
can insert themselves into the DNA.
A. T
B. F
Study Notes – Part I
• DNA Replication
• Enzymes (4)
• Replication Machinery
• 5’ to 3’ direction
• Leading Strand
• Lagging Strand and Okazaki
Fragments
•
• Central Dogma of Gene
Expression
• Transcription
• Enzymes
• 5’ to 3’ direction
• Sense versus Anti-sense
Strands
• mRNA and Codons (incl.
Start/Stop)
• Translation
• mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
• Ribosomes and Subunits
• Anti-codon
• Release Factor
• Amino Acids and Bonding
BIOLOGY 30
UNIT C
Day 23 – Sorting and Analyzing DNA
Pages 649 – 662
Agenda
• Review
• Genetic Recombination and Engineering
• Restriction Endonucleases – Cutting Up DNA
• Gel Electrophoresis – Sorting the Cut Up Pieces of DNA
• DNA Finger Printing – Determining Parental Relationships
or Guilt in Crimes
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) – Mass Producing
DNA
• Gene Therapy
• GMOs
Review
• Chromosomal versus Gene Mutations?
• Point Mutation?
• Frameshift Mutation?
• Silent mutation?
• Mis-sense versus Nonsense mutations?
• Types of Mutagens?
• Mitochondrial DNA and the Endosymbiont Theory?
Genetic Recombination and Engineering
• Genetic recombination = new arrangement of genes

• Naturally between homologous chromosomes

• Crossing Over
• Phenotypes differ from either parent
• A matter of chance
Genetic Recombination and Engineering
• Artificial recombination
• DNA from different sources  recombinant DNA

• Transgenics – gene from one species spliced into another

• Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): Organism whose

genetic material has been deliberately altered through
trangenics
Genetically Modified Mice
Restriction Endonucleases – Cutting Out
DNA
• Enzymes that catalyze cleavage of DNA at specific
nucleotide sequences

• Cut DNA molecule in the middle instead of at ends

• Recognize short sequences of nucleotides = target

sequence

• Restriction site = point in target sequence that is cut

 Restriction Endonucleases

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-
technology/dna-cloning-tutorial/a/restriction-enzymes-dna-ligase

http://weloveteaching.com/0bio105/lectures/genetics/recombinan
tDNA.html
Genetic Engineering Scenario
1. Cut out DNA from human
2. Cut circular, plasmid, DNA of bacterium
3. Insert human DNA in bacterial DNA
4. Glue together with ligase
5. Mass produce bacterial DNA, with human gene

Examples: insulin, hGH

Chimera – genetically engineered organism that contains

DNA from unrelated species
Plasmid Insertion

https://socratic.org/questions/how-would-you-explain-how-restriction-
enzymes-are-essential-to-inserting-dna-int
Insulin Production with Bacteria

https://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zx6g87h/revision/2
Gel Electrophoresis – Sorting DNA
Fragments
• Separates nucleic acids or proteins according to mass
and charge

• Based on rate at which they travel through polymeric gel

in electric field

• Smaller fragments move further.

https://socratic.org/questions/why-is-gel-electrophoresis-used
 Gel Electrophoresis – DNA Finger Prints

http://dna-fingerprinting.wikia.com/wiki/File:Paternity_Test.jpg
https://bitesizebio.com/19816/how-are-crimes-solved-by-pcr/
http://www.biologyreference.com/Dn-Ep/Electrophoresis.html
Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR –
Mass Producing DNA
• Uses Taq polymerase from bacterium Thermos aquaticus

• Functions at high temperatures

• PCR Requirements:
• Taq polymerase
• DNA to copy
• Large amounts of 4 deoxyribonucleotides
• Short DNA primers
Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR –
Mass Producing DNA (Supplementary)
1. Heat mixture to
break H-bonds
2. Cool mixture for
primers to form H-
bonds with DNA
templates
3. Heat up (not as high
temp) and Taq
polymerase
polymerizes http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/35-genetic-
modification-and/pcr.html

4. Repeat
PCR

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-
technology/dna-sequencing-pcr-electrophoresis/a/polymerase-
chain-reaction-pcr
Genetic Engineering Applications
• Why would you want to do this?
Genetic Engineering Applications
1. Mass Produce Proteins
1. Insulin, gGH

2. Gene Therapy
1. Somatic Cell
2. Germ Line (illegal)

3. Improving Plant and Animal Stock

1. Improve efficiency of photosynthesis
2. Increase plant resistance to pests, drought, etc
3. Herbicide resistant plants
Biotechnology Products
• Medicinal Bacteria
• Bacteria manipulated to produce polypeptides for
various medicines, insulin, hGH
• Cloned and Transgenic Animals
• Transgenic milk producing animals such as goats, used
to produce pharmaceutical products
• Goats engineered to produce spider silk in their blood
which is extracted and spun into light weight , strong
fibers
• Transgenic animals as organ donors, engineered to
either produce human antigens or no antigens on the
cells, thus reducing the possibility of rejection

• Video (Cows - 2)
• Transgenic Plants
• Crop plants that contain recombinant DNA, made to resist pests or
pesticides
• Plants engineered to have more nutritional value
• Golden Rice, engineered to increase its vitamin A and iron content
Assessing the Risks
• When deciding whether or not to approve a transgenic
product for use in Canada, the following criteria is
considered:
• Potential social, economic and environmental costs and benefits
• Process by which the product was made, including source of
genetic material
• Biological characteristics of the transgenic product, compared to
the natural version
• Potential health effects

• Video (3)
Diagnosis and Treatment of Genetic
Disorders
• Prenatal diagnosis and genetic screening
• Amniocentesis
• Withdraw a small amount of amniotic fluid, from which researchers can
make a karyotype for genetic analysis
• Chorionic villi sampling
• Cells are removed from the chorion, these are fetal cells and carry the
same genetic information as the developing fetus
Quiz Time
Quiz Time
Study Notes – Part I
• Miescher • Transcription
• Levene
• Enzymes
• Griffith
• Avery, MacCleod and McCarty • 5’ to 3’ direction
• Hershey and Chase • Sense versus Anti-sense
• Chargaff Strands
• Rosalind Franklin • mRNA and Codons (incl.
• Watson and Crick Start/Stop)
• DNA Replication
• Enzymes (4) • Translation
• Replication Machinery • mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
• 5’ to 3’ direction
• Ribosomes and Subunits
• Leading Strand
• Lagging Strand and Okazaki Fragments
• Anti-codon
• • Release Factor
• Central Dogma of Gene Expression • Amino Acids and Bonding
Study Notes – Part II
• Chromosomal versus • Restriction
Gene Mutations? Endonucleases?
• Point Mutation? • GMO?
• Frameshift Mutation? • Gel Electrophoresis?
• Mis-sense versus • PCR?
Nonsense mutations? • DNA Microarray and
• Types of Mutagens? cDNA
• Mitochondrial DNA and • RFLPs
the Endosymbiont
Theory?
Unit C Test Breakdown
• 42 M.C.; 8 N.R. • Types of Dominance –
4
• Cell Cycle – 1 • Pedigrees – 2
• Mitosis – 4 • Sex-linked Inheritance
• Meiosis – 4
–4
• Gene Mapping – 4
• Nondisjunction/Karytot
y-pe – 3 • DNA – 1
• Mono- and Dihybrid • Protein Synthesis – 6
Crosses - 12 • DNA Technology – 2
• Mixed – 9