CHAPTER 12

Finite-Volume (control-Volume)
Method-Introduction
12-1 Introduction (1)
In developing what has become known as
the finite-volume method, the conservation
principles are applied to a fixed region in
space known as a control volume, are
somewhat interchangeably in the literature.
12-1 Introduction(2)
 In the finite-volume approach, a point of view is taken that
is distinctly different from finite-difference method(or
Taylar-series method ). In the Taylar-series method, we
accepted the PDE as the correct and appropriate from of
the conservation principle(physical law) governing our
problem and merely turned to mathematical tools to
develop algebraic approximations to derivatives. We never
again considered the physical law represented by the PDE.
In the finite-volume method, the conservation statement is
applied in a form applicable to a region in space (control
volume).
12-1 Introduction(3)
This integral form of the conservation
statement is usually well known from the
first principles, or it can in most cases, be
developed from the PDE form of the
conservation from.
12-1 Introduction(4)
The feature of the FV method is shared in
common with the finite-element methods.
The FV procedure can, in fact, be
considered as a variant of the finite-element
method, although it is, from another point of
view, just a particular type of finite-
difference method.
 12-1 Introduction(5)
As an example, consider unsteady 2-D heat
conduction in a rectangular-shaped solid. The
problem domain is divided up into control volume
with associated points. We can establish the
control volumes first and place grid points in the
centers of the volumes (cell-centered method) or
establish the grid first and then fix the boundaries
of the control volumes (cell-vertex method) by, for
example placing the boundaries halfway between
grid points.
 12-1 Introduction(6)
The General Differential Equation
The differential equation obeying the
generalized conservation principle can be
written by the general differential equation
as
    
  v         s    (1)
t
 :dependent variable, such as velocity
components (u,v,w), h or T, k, ε
concentration, etc.
12-1 Introduction(7)
 : diffusion coefficients
S: source term
The four terms of eq.(1) are the unsteady term, the
convection term, the diffusion term and the source
term.
*Note: The “conservation form” of the PDE is also
referred to as “conservation law form” or
“divergence form”, i.e., all spatial derivatives
appear purely as divergences.
12-1 Introduction(8)
Conservation form of the governing
equations of fluid flow
 
Mass :   v   0
t

 v   
Mometum :   v v   p  v   S M
t
  h  
Energy :   v h   kT   ST
t
  c  
Species :  v c   DC   SC
t
 12-1 Introduction(9)
 One-way and two-way coordinates :
1. Definitions: a two-way coordinate is such that
the conditions at a given location in that
coordinate are influenced by changes in
conditions on either side of that location. A
one-way coordinate is such that the conditions
at a given location in that coordinate are
influenced by changes in the conditions on
only one side of that location.
12-1 Introduction(10)
2. Examples: one-dimensional steady heat
conduction in a rod provides one example of a
two-way coordinate. The temperature of any
given point in the rod can be influenced by
changing the temperature of either end.
Normally, space coordinates are two-way
coordinates. Time, on the other hand, is
always a one-way coordinate. During the
unsteady cooling of a solid, the temperature at
a given instant can be influenced by changing
only these conditions that prevailed before
that instant.
12-1 Introduction(11)
3. Space as a one-way coordinate:
If there is a strong unidirectional flow in the
coordinate direction, then significant influences travel
only from upstream. The conditions at a given point
are then affected largely by the upstream conditions,
and very little by the downstream ones. It is true that
convection is a one-way process, but diffusion (which
is always present) has two-way influences. However.,
then the flow rate is large, condition overpowers
diffusion and thus make the space coordinate nearly
one-way.
12-1 Introduction(12)
4. Parabolic, elliptic, hyperbolic:
a) The term parabolic indicates a one way behavior,
while elliptic signifies the two-way concept.
b) It would be more meaningful if situations were
described as being parabolic or elliptic in a given
coordinate. Thus, the unsteady heat condition
problem, which is normally called parabolic, is
actually parabolic in time and elliptic in all
coordinate. A two-dimension boundary layer is
parabolic in the stream wise coordinate and elliptic
in the cross-stream coordinate
12-1 Introduction(13)
c) A hyperbolic problem has a kind of one-way
behavior, which is, however, not along coordinate
directions but along special-lines called
characteristics.
d) A situation is parabolic if there exists at least one
one-way coordinate: otherwise, it is elliptic.
e) A flow with one one-way space coordinate is
sometimes called a boundary-layer-type flow,
while a flow with all two-way coordinate is
referred to as a recirculating flow.
12-1 Introduction(14)
5. Computational implications:
The motivation for the foregoing discussion about
one-way and two-way coordinates is that, it a
one-way coordinate can be identified in a given
situation, substantial economy of computer
storage and computer time is possible.
 12-2 An Illustrative Example(1)
The FV method used the integral form of
the conservation equation(eq.1) as the
starting point:

      dV  
s dV     dA   s dV      (2)
n
CV CV A CV

• Let us consider steady one-dimensional heat

conduction governed by
d  dT 
k   s  0      (3)
dx  dx 
12-2 An Illustrative Example(2)
1. Preparation: To derive the discrerization
equation, we shall employ the grid-point
cluster shown in Fig.1. We focus attention on
the grid point P, which has the grid points E
and W as its neighbors.(E denotes the east
side, while W stands for the west side). The
dashed lines show the faces of the control
volume. The letters e and w denote these faces.
12-2 An Illustrative Example(3)
(δ x)w (δ x)e
w P e E
W
Fig. 1
For △x
one-dimensional problem under
consideration, we shall assume a unit
thickness in the y and z directions. Thus, the
volume of the cv shown is △x × 1 ×1. If we
integrate eq(3) over the cv, we get
 T   T 
e

k   k    sdx  0      (4)
 x  e  x  w w
12-2 An Illustrative Example(4)
2. Profile assumption: To make further further progress,
we need a profile assumption or an interpolation
formula. Here, linear interpolation functions are used
between the grid points, as shown in Fig 2.

Fig. 2

x
W w Δp e E
δxw δxe
12-2 An Illustrative Example(5)
3. The discrerization equation: If we evaluate
the derivatives dT/dx in eq.(4) from the
piecewise-linear profile, the resulting
equation will be

ke TE  T p  k w Tp  Tw 
  s x  0      (5)
x e x w
12-2 An Illustrative Example(6)
where s is the average value of s over the cv.
It is useful to cast the discretiza tion eq(5)
into the following form :
a pTp  aETE  aW TW  b    (6)
ke kw
Where aE  , aW  , aP  aE  aW , b  s x
x e x w
12-2 An Illustrative Example(7)
4. Comments:
a) In general, it is convenient to extend eq.(6) into
multidimensional form as

a PTP   a nbTnb  b      (7)

where nb denotes a neighbor, and the summation is to be
taken over all the neighbors.
b) In deriving eq(6), we have used the simplest profile
assumption that enabled us to evaluate dT/dx. Of course,
many other interpolation functions would have been possible.
12-2 An Illustrative Example(8)
c) Further, it is important to understand that we need
not use the same profile for all quantities.
d) Even for given variable, the same profile
assumption need not be used for all terms in the
equation.
12-2 An Illustrative Example(9)
5. Treatment of source term:
The discretization equations will be solved by
the techniques for linear algebraic equations.
The procedure for “linearizing” a given S~T
relationship is necessary. Here, it is sufficient
to express the overage value S as

S  S C  S PTP
12-2 An Illustrative Example(10)
Where Sc stands for the constant part of S,
while Sp is the coefficient of Tp. With the
linearized source expression, the
discretization equation will become
aPTP  aETE  aW TW  b
ke
where aE 
x e
kw
aW 
x w
aP  aE  aW  s p x
b  SC x
12-3 The Four Basic Rules(1)
Rule 1:Consistency at a control-volume face
-When a face is common to two adjacent control
volumes, the flux across it must be represented by
the same expression in the discretization equations
for the two control volumes
Rule 2:Positive coefficients
-All coefficients (ap and neighbor coefficients anb)
must always be positive.
 12-3 The Four Basic Rules(2)
Rule 3:Negative-slope linearization of the
source term
-When the source term is linearized as S=SC+SPTP,
the coefficient SP must always be less than or equal
to zero.
Rule 4:Sum of the neighbor coefficients
-We require aP  a nb
 CHAPTER 13

The Finite Volume Method

for Diffusion Problems
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(1)
The Basic Equation
d  dT 
k   S  0    (1)
dx  dx 
The Discretization Equation
a P TP  a E TE  aW TW  b      (2)
ke
where aE 
x e
kw
aW 
x w
a p  a E  aW  S P x
b  S C x
 13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(2)
 The Grid Spacing
1. For the grid points shown in 8.4, it it not necessary
that the distances (δx)e and (δx)w be equal. Indeed, the
use of non-uniform grid spacing is often desirable, for
it enables us to deploy computing power effectively.
In general, we shall obtain an accurate solution only
when the grid is sufficiently fine, but there is no need
to employ a fine grid in regions where the dependent
variable T changes rather slowly with x. On the other
hand, a fine grid is required where the T~x variation
is steep.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(3)
2. A misconception seems prevail that non-
uniform grid lead to less accuracy than do
uniform grids. There is no sound basis for
such an assertion. Also there are no universal
rules about what maximum (or minimum)
ratio the adjacent grid intervals should
maintain.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(4)
3. Since the T~x distribution is not known before
the problem is solved, how can we design an
appropriate non-uniform grid?
First: One normally has some qualitative
expectations about the solution, from
which some guidance can be obtained.
second: preliminary coarse-grid solutions can
be used to find the pattern of the
T~x variation; then a suitable non-
uniform grid can be constructed.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(5)
 The Interface Conductivity
1. The most straightforward procedure for
obtaining the interface conductivity ke is to
assume a linear variation of k between points
P and E
(δx)e

(δx)e- (δx)e+
x
P e E
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(6)

Then, ke  f e k p  (1  f e )k E    (3)

where fe 
x e 
    ( 4)
x e
If the interface e were midway between grid
points, fe would be 0.5, and ke would be he
arithmetic mean of kp and kE.
 13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(7)
2.We shall shortly show that this simple-minded
approach leads to rather incorrect implications in
some cases and cannot accurately handle the
abrupt changes of conductivity that may occur in
composite materials. Fortunately, a much better
alternative is available.
3.Our main objective is to obtain a good
representation for the heat flux qe at the interface
via
 13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(8)

3.Our main objective is to obtain a good

representation for the heat flux qe at the
interface via
qe 
 
ke T p  TE
   (5)
x e
For the composite slab between points P and E, a steady
one-dimensional analysis (without sources) lead to

TP  TE
qe      ( 6)
x e  x e
kP kE
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(9)
Combination of Eqs.(4) —— (6) yields
1
1  fe fe 
ke        (7 )
 k k 
 p E 

When the interface e is placed midway between p and E,

e  p E 
we have fe=0.5; then k 1  0.5 k 1  k 1      (8)

2k p k E
or k e       (9)
k p  kE
Eq. (9) show that ke is the harmonic mean of kp and kE,
rather than the arithmetic mean.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(10)
4.
1
 x e  x e  
aE    
 k p k E 
A similar expression can be written for aW.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(11)
5. The recommended interface conductivity
formula (7) is based on the steady, no-source,
one-dimensional situation in which the
conductivity varies in a stepwise fashion from
one control volume to the next. Even in
situations with nonzero sources or with
continuous variation of conductivity, it
performs much better then the arithmetic-
mean formula.
 13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(12)
 Iteration
1. Start with a guess or estimate for the values of T at all
grid points.
2. From these guessed T´s, calculate tentative values of
the coefficients in the discretization equation.
3. Solve the nominally set of algebraic equations to get
new values of T.
4. With these T´s as better guesses, return to step 2 and
repeat the process until further repetitions cease to
produce significant changes in the values of T.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(13)
 Source-Term Linearization
Tp*: the guess value or the previous-iteration
value of Tp
Example 1: Given S=5-4T
-Sc=5, Sp=-4—recommended
-Sc=5-4Tp *, Sp=0 —not impractical
-Sc=5+7Tp *,Sp=-11 —a steeper S~T
relationship, will slow down the
convergence
 13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(14)
 Example 2: Given S=3+7T
1. Sc=3,Sp=7 —this is not acceptable, as it
makes Sp positive. The presence of a
positive Sp many cause divergence.
2. Sc=3+7Tp*, Sp=0 —this is the practice
one should follow.
3. Sc=3+9Tp*, Sp=-2 —this is an artificial
creative Sp. It will, in general, slow
down the convergence.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(15)
 Example 3: Given S=4-5T3
1. Sc=4-5Tp*3, Sp=0—this is the lazy-person
approach.
2. Sc=4, Sp=-5Tp*2—this given S~T curve is
steeper than this implies.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(16)
3. Recommended* method:
*  dS 
S  S   p
T  T 
p
*

 dT 
 4  5T *3
p  15T *2
p T p  T p* 
*3 *2
 4  10T p  15T T p
p

*3 *2
Thus, S c  4  10T , S p  15T
p p
This linearization represents the tangent to
the S~T curve at Tp*
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(17)
4. Sc=4+20Tp*, Sp=-25Tp*2—This givens a
steeper S~T curve, which would slow down
convergence

S
(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)
T
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(18)
 Boundary Conditions:
1. Typically, three kinds of boundary conditions
are encountered in heat condition. These are
-Given boundary temperature.
-Given boundary heat flux
-Boundary heat flux specified via a heat transfer
coefficient and the temperature of the surrounding
fluid.
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(19)
2. If the boundary temperature is given, no
particular difficulty arises, and no additional
equations are required. When the boundary
temperature is not given, we need to construct
an additional equation for TB. This is done by
integrating the differential equation over the
“half” control volume shown adjacent to the
boundary in the following Figure.
 13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(20)
“Half” C.V.

B I W P E
Fig 1
Typical C.V.
(δx)i

qB
B i I
Δx
Fig 2
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(21)
3. Apply the principles of energy conservation
i  d  dT   dT dT
B  dx  k dx   s dx  k dx i  k dx B
 s x

Applying the principles of energy

conservation over C.V. of Fig.2 and noting
that the heat flux q stands for -k(dT/dx), we
get q  q  ( S  S T )x  0
B i c p B

k T  T 
 q  i
 S  S T x  0
B I
B
dx  i
c p B

 a BTB  a I TI  b
ki
where a I  , b  S c x  q B , a B  a I  S P x
x i
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(22)
4. If qB is specified in terms of a heat transfer
coefficient h and a surrounding-fluid
temperature Tf such that
qB =h(Tf-TB)
Then, the equation for TB becomes
a BTB  a I TI  b
ki
where a I  , b  S C x  hT f ,
x i
aB  a I  S P x  h
13-1 Steady One-dimensional
Condition(23)
 Solution of the Linear Algebra Equation
(TDMA)
1. The discretization equations can be written as

ai Ti  bi Ti 1  ci Ti 1  d i      (1)
13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(1)
 The general Discretization Equation
1. Unsteady one-dimensional heat-conduction
equation

  cT    T 
 k     (1)
t x  x 
if  , c are constant, eq.(1) becomes
T   T 
c  k     (2)
t x  x 
 13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(2)
2. The discretization equation

w e
W P E

e t  t T t  t e   T 
c   dtdx    k dxdt    (3)
w t t t w x  x 
e t  t T
c  
w t t
 
dtdx cx TP  T p0
13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(3)

 ke TE  Tp  k w T p  Tw 
 cx TP  T  0
  t  t
  dt    (4)
 x e x w 
p
t

t
t  t
 
Tp dt  fT p  (1  f )Tp0 t    (5)
where f is a weighting factor between 0 and 1
from Eqs.(4) and (5), we can get
x  ke TE  T p0  k w T p  Tw0 
 c T p  T p0   f  
t   
x e  
x w 
 ke TE0  T p0  k w T p0  Tw0 
 1  f       ( 6)
 x e x w 
 13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(4)

  
a pTp  aE fTE  1  f TE0  aW fTW  1  f TW0 

 aP0  1  f aE  1  f aW T
P
0
    ( 6)
where
ke kw
aE  aw 
x e x w
cx
ap 
0
a p  faE  faw  a 0p
t
13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(5)
1. Example: Crank-Nicolson, and Fully
Implicit Schemes
cx 2
f  0 : exp licit scheme  stability criteria : t 
2k
f  0.5 : Crank  Nicolson scheme
  unconditio nally stable
f  1 : Fully implicit scheme 
13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(6)
2. Variation of temperature with time for three
different schemes
Tp
Explicit
0
Tp
Crank-Nicolson

T p
Fully implicit

t t+Δt t
13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(7)
3. Why would we prefer the fully implicit
scheme?
a) For f=0 (explicit) scheme
→ apTp= aETE0 + awTw0 +( ap0-aE-aW ) TP0
This means that TP is not related to other unknows
such as TE or TW, but is explicitly obtainable in
terms of known temperature TP0, TE0, TW0.
13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(8)
b) For f=0.5, the coefficient of TP0 in eq(6) becomes
aP0-(aE + aW )/2. For uniform conductivity and
uniform grid spacing, this coefficient can be seen
to be ρc(∆x/∆t)-k/ ∆x. Whenever the time step is
not sufficiently small, this coefficient could
become negative, with its potential for physically
unrealistic results.
c) For f=1, the coefficient of TP0 in eq(6) must never
become negative. It is for this reason that we shall
adopt the fully implicit scheme in this book.
13-2 Unsteady One-Dimensional
Condition(9)
 The Fully Implicit Discretitation Equation
1. aP TP =aE TE +aW TW +b
Where
ke kW cx
aE  , aW  , aP 
0
,
x e x W t
b  S C x  a T
0
p
0
p

a P  a E  aW  a P0  S P x

2. It can be seen that, as ∆t →∞ , this equation reduces

to our steady-state discretization equation.
 13-3 Two-And Three-
Dimensional Situations(1)
Discretization Equation for Two Dimensions

  cT    T    T 
 k    k   s
t x  x  y  y 
if  , c  constant, then
 T    T    T 
c  k    k   s
t x  x  y  y 
 13-3 Two-And Three-
Dimensional Situations(2)
N
∆x
n

∆y
W E
w p e

s y
S x
13-3 Two-And Three-
Dimensional Situations(3)
→aP TP =aE TE +aW TW +aN TN +b
where
ke y k y k x k x
aE  , aW  W , a N  n , aW  s ,
x e x W y n y S
cxy
a 
0
,
t
P

b  SC xy  a 0pTp0
aP  aE  aW  aS  a N  aP0  S P xy
 Discretiza tion Equation for Three Dimensions
aPTP  aETE  aW TW  a N TN  aS TS  aT TT  aBTB  b
13-4 Overrelaxation and
Underrelaxation(1)
Overrelaxation is often used in conjunction with
the Gauss-Seidel method, the resulting scheme
being known as successive Over-Relaxation
(SOR). With the line-by-line method, the use of
overrelaxation is less common. Underrelaxation is
a very useful device for nonlinear problem. It is
often employed to avoid divergence in the
iterative solution of strongly nonlinear equations.
13-4 Overrelation and
Underrelaxation(2)
The general discretization equation of the form is
aPTP   anbTnb  b    (1)

 TP 
 a T b
nb nb
   (2)
aP
  anbTnb  b 
 TP  T  
*
P
  TP     (3)
*

 aP 
TP* is the value of TP from the previous iteration.
  anbTnb  b 
 TP  T   
*
P  TP     (4a )
*

 aP 
or P TP   anbTnb  b  1    P TP*    (4b)
a a
 
13-4 Overrelation and
Underrelaxation(3)
At first, it should be noted that, when the iterations,
that is, TP becomes equal to TP*. Eq. (4a) implies
that the converged values of T do satisfy the
original Eq.(1). Any relaxation scheme, of course
must possess this property; the final converged
solution, although obtained through the use of
arbitrary relaxation factors or similar devices,
must still satisfy the original discretization
equation.
13-4 Overrelation and
Underrelaxation(4)
There are no general rules for choosing the
best value of α. The optimum value depends
upon a number of factors, such as the nature
of the problem, the number of grid points,
the grid spacing, and the iterative procedure
used. Usually, a suitable value of α can be
found by experience.
 CHAPTER 14

Convection and Diffusion

14-1 Convection-Diffusion Term
The convection term has an inseparable
connection with the diffusion term, and
therefore, the two terms need to be handled
as one unit.
Governing Equations
 
 u j   0
t x j
        
 u j   
 x 
S
t x j x j  j 
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(1)
Governing Equations

d
u   0 or u  cons tan t
dx
d   
d
u         (1)
dx dx  x 
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(2)
 A Preliminary Derivation
1. Integration of Eq (1) over the C.V. shown in
Fig.1 gives

 d   d 
u e  u w            (2)
 dx  e  dx  w
C.V.

w e
W P E
(δx)w (δx)e
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(3)
2. Diffusion term: The same way of chapter 9.
3. Convection term:

 e   E   P  and  w   P  W 
1 1
2 2
The factor ½ arises from the assumption of
the interfaces being midway. Now, Eq (1) can
be written as
1
u e  E   P   u w  P  W 
1
2 2
e  E   P  w  P  W 
 
x e x w
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(4)
4.
a) 
F  u , D 
x
b) Both have the same dimensions; F indicates the
strength of the convection (or the flow), while D is
the diffusion conductance.
c) D always remains positive, F can take either
positive or negative values depending on the
direction of the fluid flow.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(5)
5. Discretization Equation:

a P P  a E E  aW W    (3)
Fe
Where a E  De     (3a )
2
Fw
aW  Dw     (3b)
2
Fe Fw
aP  De   Dw 
2 2
 aE  aW  Fe  Fw     (3c)
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(6)
6. Discussion:
a) Since by continuity Fe=Fw, we do get the property
aP= aE + aW
b) Eq (3) is also known as the central-difference
scheme and is the natural outcome of a Taylor-
series formulation.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(7)
c) Example: De=Dw=1 and Fe=Fw=4
Consider two sets of values:
i. If ΦE=200 and ΦW=100 , then ΦP=50!
ii. If ΦE=100 and ΦW=200 , then ΦP=250!
Since , in reality, cannot fall outside
the range of 100~200 established by
its neighbors, these results are clearly
unrealistic.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(8)
d) Eqs (3a)-(3c) indicate that the coefficients could,
at times, become negative. When |F| exceeds 2D,
then, depending on whether F is positive or
negative, where is a possibility of aE or aW
becoming negative. This will be a violation of one
of the basic rules.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(9)
 The Upwind Scheme
1. The upwind scheme recognizes that the weak
point in the preliminary formulation is the
assumption that the convected property Φe at
the interface is the average of ΦE and ΦP , and
it proposes a better prescription. The
formulation of the diffusion term is left
unchanged, but the convection term is
calculated from the following assumption:
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(10)
The value of Φ at an interface is equal to the
value of Φ at the grid point on the upwind side
of the face.
thus, Φe = Φp if Fe>0—(4a)
and, Φe = ΦE if Fe<0—(4b)
The value of Φw can be defined similarly.

w e
W P E
u e  u w  F e  F w
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(11)
2. We shall define 【A,B】 to denote the greater of
A and B . Then, the upwind scheme implies

Fe e   p Fe ,0   E  Fe ,0    (5)

14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(12)
3. The discretization equation becomes

a p p  aE E  aW W        (6)
where aE  De   Fe ,0    (6a )
aW  Dw  Fw ,0    (6b)
aP  De  Fe ,0  Dw  1  Fw ,0
 aE  aW  Fe  Fw     (6c)
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(13)
4. Discussion:
It is evident from Eqs.(6) that no negative
coefficients would arise, thus, the solutions
will always be physically realistic.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(14)
 The Exact Solution
    
u         (1)
x x  x 
can be solved exactly if Γ is taken to be
constant.(ρu is constant)
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(15)
If a domain 0≦x≦L is used, with the boundary
conditions
At x  0   0
At x  L    L
The solution of Eq(1) is

  0 exp P x L  1

     (7 )
 L  0 exp P   1
where P is a Peclet number defined by
uL
p

It can be seen that P is the ratio of the strengths of
convection and diffusion.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(16)
2. The nature of the exact solution:

-P>>1
фL

P= -1
ф
P=0
P=1
Fig.2 Exact solution for the
ф0 one-dimensional convection-
P>>1 diffusion problem

0 L
x
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(17)
a) In the limit of zero Peclet number, we get the
pure-diffusion (or conduction) problem, and the
ф~x variation is linear.
b) When the flow is in the positive x direction (i.e.,
for positive values of P), the values of ф in the
domain seem to be more influenced by the
upstream value ф0.
c) For a large positive value of P, the value of ф
remains very close to the upstream value ф0 over
much of the domain.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(18)
d) When the fluid flows in the negative x direction,
Φ L becomes the upstream value, which dominates
the values of Φ in the domain.
e) When a large negative P, the value Φ of over
most of the region is very nearly equal to Φ L .
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(19)
3. Implications:
a) It is easy to see why our preliminary derivation
failed to give a satisfactory formulation. The Φ ~x
profile is far from being linear except for small
values of |P|.
b) Where |P| is large, the value of Φ at x=L/2 (the
interface is nearly equal to the value of Φ at the
upwind boundary. This is precisely the assumption
made in the upwind scheme; but there it is used
for all values of |P|, not just for large value.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(20)
c) Where |P| is large, dΦ/dx is nearly zero at x=L/2.
Thus the diffusion is almost absent. The upwind
scheme always calculates the diffusion term from
a linear Φ~x profile and thus overestimates
diffusion at large value of |P|.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(21)
 The exponential scheme
1. It is useful to consider a total flux J that is
made of the convection flux ρu and the
diffusion flux -Γd /dx. Thus,
d
J  u      (8)
dx
with this definition eq (1) becomes
dJ
 0    (9)
dx
which, when integrated over the C.V.
shown in fig.1 gives J e  J w  0    (10)
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(22)
2. The substitution of eq. (9) into eq. (8) would
give the expression for Je:

  p  E 
J e  Fe   p      (10)
 exp  pe   1 

where pe 
 u e x e Fe

e De
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(23)
3. Finally, substitution of eq. (11) and a similar
expression for Jw into eq. (10) leads to

  p  E   W   p 
Fe   p    Fw  W    0  (12)
 exp  pe   1   exp  pw   1 
 aP P  aE E  aW W    (13)
Fe
where aE     (14a )
exp Fe / De   1
Fw exp Fw / Dw 
aw     (14b)
exp Fw / Dw   1
a p  aE  aW  Fe  Fw     (14c)
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(24)
4. Discussions:
a) These coefficients expressions define the
exponential scheme. When used for the steady
one-dimensional problem, this scheme is
guaranteed to produce the exact solution for any
value of the Peclet number and for any number of
grid points.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(25)
b) Despite its highly desirable behavior, it is not
widely used because
i. Exponentials are expensive to compute.
ii. Since the scheme is not for two- or three-dimensional
situations, nonzero sources, etc., the extra expense of
computing the exponentials does not seem to be justified.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(26)
 The Hybrid scheme
1. To appreciate the connection between the
exponential scheme and the hybrid scheme,
we shall plot aE/De vs. pe as follows:
 14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(27)

From eq(14), we deduce that

aE pe

De exp  p e   1
aE 5
aE De
  pe 4
De
3
aE
2 Exact 0
aE pe De
 1
De 2
pe
Fig. 3 1 2 3 4 5
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(28)
2. From Fig 3, we can get
aE
a ) For p e    0
De
aE
b) For p e     p e
De
aE pe
c) At p e  0, the tangent is  1
De 2
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(29)
3. The hybrid scheme is made up of these three
straight lines of Fig.3, so that
aE
a ) For p e  2   p e
De
aE pe
b) For - 2  p e  2   1
De 2
aE
c) For p e  2  0
De
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(30)
4. These expressions can be combined into a
compact form as follows:

 pe 
a E  De   p e , 1  , 0
 2 
 Fe 
or a E   Fe , De  , 0
 2 
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(31)
5. The significance of the hybrid scheme can be
understood by observing that
a) It is identical with the central-difference scheme
for –2 < pe < 2
b) Outside this range it reduces to the upwind scheme
in which the diffusion has been set equal to zero.
c) The name hybrid is indicative of a combination of
the central-difference and upwind scheme, but it is
best to consider the hybrid scheme as the three-
line approximation to the exact curve, shown in
Fig.3
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(32)
6. The convection-diffusion discretization for
the hybrid scheme can now be written as
aP P  aE E  aW W
where
 Fe 
aE   Fe , De  , 0
 2 
 Fw 
aw   Fw , Dw  , 0
 2 
aP  aE  aW  Fe  Fw 
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(33)
 The Power-Law scheme
1. It can be seen from Fig.3, that the departure
of the hybrid scheme from the exact curve is
rather large. A better approximation to the
exact curve is given by the Power-law scheme.
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(34)
2. The Power-law expressions for aE can be
written as
aE
a ) For p e  10   p e    (15a )
De
aE
b) For - 10  p e  0   1  0.1p e   p e    (15b)
5

De
aE
c) For 0  p e  10   1  0.1p e     (15c)
5

De
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(35)
 A Generalized Formulation
1. The general convection-diffusion formulation
can be written as

a p p  a E  E  a w w
where a E  De A p    Fe ,0
a w  Dw A p   Fw ,0
a p  a E  a w  Fe  Fw 
14-2 Steady One-Dimensional
Convection and Diffusion(36)
2. The function A(|p|) for different schemes

Central  difference 1  0.5 p

Upwind 1
Hybrid 0,1  0.5 p 
Power  law 0, 1  0.1 p  
5

p
Exponential (exact)
exp  p   1
14-3 Discretization Equation for
Two Dimensions(1)
Discretization Equation of 2-D
 J x J y
     s    (1)
t x y
where Jx and Jy are the total (convection
plus diffusion) fluxes defined by

J x  u      (1a )
x

J y  v      (1b)
y
14-3 Discretization Equation for
Two Dimensions(2)
The integration of eq(1) over the c.v. shown
in Fig.1 would give
N
∆x
n

W Jn ∆y E
w p e
Jw Je
s Js y
S x
Fig.2
14-3 Discretization Equation for
Two Dimensions(3)

 
p p 
  0p p0 xy
 Je  Jw  Jn  Js
t
 S c  S p p xy    (2)
14-3 Discretization Equation for
Two Dimensions(4)
In a similar manner, we can integrate the
continuity eq
  Fx Fy 
    0 
 t x y 
over the c.v. and obtain
 p 
  0p xy
 Fe  Fw  Fn  Fs  0    (3)
t
where F  u
14-3 Discretization Equation for
Two Dimensions(5)

(2)  (3)   p
 0p xy

  p   p0  t
 J e  Fe p   J w  Fw p 

 J n  Fn p   J s  Fs p   S c  S p p xy  (4)

14-3 Discretization Equation for
Two Dimensions(6)
The final discretization equation
J e  Fe p  a E  p   E 
J w  Fw p  aw  w   p 
where aE  DE A pe    Fe ,0
aW  DW A pw   Fw ,0
 The 2 - D discretiza tion equation can now
be written as
a p p  aE E  aW   a N  N  aS S  b
14-3 Discretization Equation for
Two Dimensions(7)
aE  De A pe    Fe ,0
where

aW  Dw A pw   Fw ,0
a N  Dn A pn    Fn ,0
aS  Ds A ps   Fs ,0
 0p xy
a 0p 
t
b  SC xy  a 0p p 0p
a p  aE  aw  a N  aS  a 0p  S p xy
14-4 One-Way Space
Coordinate(1)
Time is a one-way coordinate. The convection-
diffusion formulation reveals that a space
coordinate can also become a one-way.
What makes a space coordinate One-Way?
When the Peclet number exceeds10, the Power-
law scheme will set the downstream-neighbor
coefficient equal to zero. (the hybrid scheme does
this for a Peclet number greater than 2.)
 14-4 One-Way Space
Coordinate(2)
Suppose that, in the 2-D situation shown in
Fig.2 , there is a high flow rate in the
positive x direction. Then, for all the grid
points along a y-direction line, the
coefficient aE will be zero. In other words,
p will be dependent on W , N , and S , but
not on aE. Thus the x coordinate will
become a one-way coordinate since the 
value at any point will be uninfluenced by
any of the downstream values.
14-4 One-Way Space
Coordinate(3)

p E
w
S

Fig.2
14-4 One-Way Space
Coordinate(4)
The outflow Boundary Conditions
At the outflow boundary shown in Fig.3, for
example, one may not know the temperature or the
heat flux. How can we then solve the problem?
The answer is surprisingly simple: No boundary-
condition information is needed at an outflow
boundary. For all grid points p next to the outflow
boundary, the coefficient aE will be zero, and
hence no boundary values will be needed. In other
words, the region near the outflow boundary
exhibits, for large Peclet number, local one-way
behavior.
 14-4 One-Way Space
Coordinate(5)

outflow
boundary

Inflow
boundary N
W P E
S
Fig 3
14-4 One-Way Space
Coordinate(6)
A particularly bad choice of an outflow-
boundary location is the one in which there
is an “inflow” over a part of it. An example
of this shown in Fig.4. For such a bad
choice of the boundary, no meaningful
solution can be obtained.
14-4 One-Way Space
Coordinate(7)

Bad Good
Fig. 4
 CHAPTER 15

Calculation of The Flow

Field
15-1 Need for a Special
Procedure
The real difficulty in the calculation of the
velocity field lies in the unknown pressure
field. The pressure gradient forms a part of
source term for a momentum equation.
15-2 Some Related Difficulties(1)
 Representation of the Pressure-Gradient
Term
1. To integrate –dp/dx over the control volume
shown in Fig.1, we can get pw-pe.

W w P e E
x c.v.
Fig. 1
15-2 Some Related Difficulties(2)
2. To express pw-pe in terms of the grid-point
pressure, we may assume a piecewise-linear
profile for pressure. Therefore, we can get
pW  p p p p  pE pW  pE
p w  pe   
2 2 2
This means that the momentum equation will
contain the pressure difference between two
alternate grid points, and not between
adjacent ones.
15-2 Some Related Difficulties(3)
3. There is another implication that is far more
serious. It can be seen from Fig.2, where a
pressure field is proposed in terms of the grid-
point values of pressure.
p=100 500 100 500 100 500

Fig. 2
such a zig-zag field cannot be regarded as
realistic; but for any grid point p, the
corresponding pW-pE can be seen to zero,
since the alternate pressure values are
everywhere equal.
15-2 Some Related Difficulties(4)
Representation of the continuity Equation
If we integrate the continuity equation over
the c.v. shown in Fig1, we have
ue-uw=0
15-2 Some Related Difficulties(5)
Once again, the use of a piecewise-linear
profile for u and of the midway locations of
the control-volume faces leads to
u p  uE uW  u p
  0 or u E  uW  0
2 2
Thus, the discretized continuity equation
demands the quality of velocities at
alternate grid points and not at adjacent
ones.
15-3 A Remedy : The staggered
Grid(1)
The difficulties described so far can be
resolved by recognizing that we do not have
to calculate all the variables for the same
grid points. We can, if we wish, employ a
different grid for each dependent variable.
15-3 A Remedy : The staggered
Grid(2)
Staggered grid:
1. The velocity components are calculated for
the points that lie on the face of the control
volume, as shown in Fig.3.
2. Other variables are calculated for the grid
points(small circles).

Fig.3 →=ui,, ↑=vi ,

=other variables
15-3 A Remedy : The staggered
Grid(3)
3. The important advantages are twofold:
a) For a typical c.v. shown in Fig.3, it is easy to see
that the discretized continuity equation would
contain the difference of adjacent velocity
components, and this would prevent a wavy
velocity field.
b) The second important advantage of the staggered
grid is that the pressure difference between two
adjacent grid points now becomes the natural
driving force for the velocity component located
between these grid points.
15-4 The Momentum
Equations(1)
The discretization equation (2-D) can be
written as
a e u e   a nb u nb  b   p P  p E Ae    (1a )
a n v n   a nb v nb  b   p P  p N An    (1b)
similarly at wt   a nb wnb  b   p P  pt At    (1c)
15-4 The Momentum
Equations(2)

n
e

Fig.4a c.v. for u Fig.4b c.v. for v

The pressure gradient is not included in the
source-term SC and SP.
15-4 The Momentum
Equations(3)
The momentum equation can be solved when the
pressure field is given or is somewhat estimated.
Unless the correct pressure field is employed, the
resulting velocity field will not satisfy the
continuity equation. Such an imperfect field based
on a guessed pressure field p* will be denoted by
u*,v*,w*. This “starred” velocity field will result
from the solution of the following equations:
a e u e*   a nb u nb
*
 
 b  p P*  p E* Ae    (2a )
a n v n*   a nb v nb
*
 b   p  p A
*
P
*
N n    (2b)
at wt*   a nb wnb
*
 b   p  p A
*
P
*
t t    (2c)
15-5 The Pressure and Velocity
Corrections(1)
One aim is to find a way of improving the
guessed pressure p* such that the resulting
starred velocity field will progressively get
closer to satisfying the continuity equation.
Let us propose that the correct pressure p is
obtained from
p  p  p     (3)
*

where p’ will be called the pressure

correction.
15-5 The Pressure and Velocity
Corrections(2)
Similarly, we can get
u  u  u     (4a ),
*

v  v  v     (4b),
*

w  w  w    (4c),
*

u , v , w  velocity corrections
15-5 The Pressure and Velocity
Corrections(3)
If (1a)-(2a), we have
   p p  p E Ae    (5)
ae u e   a nb u nb
At this point, we shall boldly decide to drop
the term ∑anbu' nb from eq.(5) and the result
is
a e u e   p p  p E  or u e  d e  p p  p E   (6)
Ae
where d e 
ae
15-5 The Pressure and Velocity
Corrections(4)
Eq.(6) will be called the velocity-correction
formula, which can also be written as
ue  u  d e  pp  pE   (7 a)
*
e

Similarly , vn  vn*  d n  pp  pn   (7b)

wt  wt  d t  pp  pt   (7c)
*
15-6 The Pressure-Correction
Equation(1)
The discretization eq. of continuity eq:

   u    v    w
   0
t x y z
 p   p xyz
0

  u e   u w yz
t
  v n   v s zx   wt   wb xy  0    (8)
15-6 The Pressure-Correction
Equation(2)
Substituting eqs(7) into eq(8), we can
obtain
a p pp  aE pE  aW pW  a N pN  aS pS  aT pT  aB pB  b  (9)
where aE   e d e yz ,aW   w d w yz ,
a N   n d n yz , aS   s d s yz ,
aT   t d t yz , aB   b d b yz ,
a p  aE  aW  a N  aS  aT  aB

b
 0
p 
  p xyz
   u  yz
 u * *

t
w e

 v   v  zx  w   w  xy    (10)

*
s
*
n
*
b
*
t
15-6 The Pressure-Correction
Equation(3)
If b is zero, it means that the stared velocity,
in conjunction with the available value of
(ρp0- ρp), do satisfy the continuity equation
and no pressure correction is needed. The
term b this represents a “ mass source”,
which the pressure corrections must be
annihilate.
 15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(1)
 SIMPLE stands for Semi-Implicit Method for
Pressure-Linked Equations.
 Sequence of operations:
1. Guess the pressure p*.
2. Solve the momentum eqs, such as (2a)~(2c), to obtain
u*,v*,w*.
3. Solve p' eq.
4. Calculate p=p*+p '
5. Calculate u,v,w from (7a)~(7c)
6. Solve other Φ‘s.
7. Treat the corrected pressure p as a new guessed pressure p*,
return to step (2) and repeat the whole procedure until a
converged solution is obtain.
 15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(2)
 Discussion of the Pressure-Correction
Equation
1. If expressions such as anbu'nb were retained,
they would have to be expressed in terms of
the pressure corrections and the velocity
corrections at the neighbors of unb. The
omission of the ∑anbu'nb term enables us to
cast the p equation in the same form as the
general Φ equation, and to adopt a sequential,
one-variable-at-a-time, solution procedure.
15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(3)
2. The words semi-implicit in the name SMPLE
have been used to acknowledge the omission of
the term ∑anbu'nb . This term represents on
indirect or implicit influence of the pressure
correction on velocity. Pressure corrections at
nearby locations can alter the neighboring
velocities and thus a velocity correction at the
point under consideration. We do not include
this influence and thus work with a scheme
that is only partially, and not totally, implicit.
15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(4)
3. The omission of any term, would of course, be
unacceptable if it meant that the ultimate solution
would not be true solution of the discretized forms
of the momentum and continuity equation. It also
happens that the converged solution given by
SIMPLE does not contain any error resulting from
the omission of ∑anbu'nb
15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(5)
4. The mass source b serves as a useful indicator of
the convergence of the fluid-flow solution. The
iterations should be continued until the value of b
everywhere becomes sufficiently small.
5. The pressure-correction can be seen to be merely
an intermediate algorithm that leads us to the
correct pressure field, but has no direct effect on
the final solution.
15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(6)
6. The pressure-correction equation is prone to
divergence unless some under-relaxation is used.
A generally successful practice can be described
as follows: we under-relax u*,v*,w* while solving
the momentum equations (with a relaxation factor
α=0.5). Also, we employ
p  p *   p p  ,  p  0.8
It is not implied that these values are the optimum
ones or will even produce divergence for all
problems. The optimum relaxation factor values
are usually problem-dependent.
 15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(7)
 Boundary Conditions for the Pressure-
Correction Equation
1. There are two kinds of conditions at a boundary.
Either the pressure at the boundary is given
(and the velocity is unknown) or the velocity
component normal to the boundary is specified.
2. Given pressure at the boundary:
If the guessed pressure field p* is arranged such
that at a boundary p*=pgiven, then the value of p'
at the boundary will be zero.
 15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(8)
3. Given normal velocity at the boundary:
As shown in Fig.1, the velocity ue is given. It the
derivation of the p' equation for the c.v. shown,
the flow rate across the boundary face should not
expressed in terms of ue* and a correction, but in
*Note: terms of ue itself N
u e  u *  u , E
a p p p  a E p E  aW pW  a S p S  a N p N  b
p ue((given)
Then, p'E will not appear or aE will
be zero in the p' equation. Thus no S
Fig.1
information about p'E will be needed.
 15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(9)
 The Relative Nature of Pressure
1. Since no boundary pressure is specified and
all the boundary coefficients such as aE will be
zero, the p' equation is left without any means
of establishing the absolute value of p'. The
coefficients of the p' equation are such that
aP=∑anb ; this means that p' and p' +c (c is an
arbitrary constant) would both satisfy the p'
equation.
15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(10)
2. Only difference in the pressure are meaningful
(p=p*+p'), and these are not altered by an
arbitrary constant to the p' field. Pressure is then a
relative variable, not a absolute one.
15-7 The SIMPLE Algorithm(11)
3. In many problems, the value of the absolute
pressure is much larger than the local differences
in pressure that are encountered. If the absolute
values of pressure were for p, round-off errors
would arise in calculating differences like pp-pE. It
is, therefore, best to set p=0 as a reference value at
a suitable point and to calculate all other values of
p as pressures relation to start from p'=0 as guess
for all point, so that the solution for p' does not
acquire a large absolute value.
 15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(1)
 Motivation
1. SIMPLER stands for SIMPLE Revised.
2. In most cases, it is reasonable to suppose that
the pressure-correction equation does a fairly
good job of correcting the velocities, but a
rather poor job of correcting the pressure.
 15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(2)
 The Pressure Equation
1. The momentum equation is first written as
u 
 a u b
 d  p  p   (1)
nb nb
e e p E
ae
Now, we define a pseudovelo city û e first writ ten as

uˆ e 
 a nb u nb  b
 (2)
ae
 u e  uˆ e  d e  p p  p E   (3a)
similarly, we can write v n  vˆn  d n  p p  p N   (3b)
wt  wˆ t  d t  p p  pT   (3c)
substituti ng (3a) ~ (3c) into continuity eq. , we can get
a p p p  a E p E  aW pW  a N p N  a S p S  aT pT  a B p B  b  (4)
15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(3)
2. Although the pressure eq and p' eq are almost
identical, there is one major difference:
No approximations have been introduced in the
derivation of the pressure equation. Thus, if a
correct velocity field were used to calculate the
pseudo-velocities, the pressure equation would
at once give the correct pressure.
 15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(4)
 The SIMPLER Algorithm
The revised algorithm consists of solving
the pressure equation to obtain the pressure
field and solving the pressure-correction
equation only to correct the velocities.
 15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(5)
 The sequence of operations can be stated as:
1. Start with a guessed velocity field.
2. Calculate pseudo-velocity û,v,ŵ from eqs (1),(2).
3. Solve pressure equation by eq.(4) to obtain the pressure field.
4. Treat this pressure field as p*, solve momentum eq to obtain
u*,v*,w* solve p' eq.
5. Solve p' eq
6. Correct the velocity field (ue=u*+de(p'p-p'e),etc), but do not
correct the pressure.
7. Solve other Φ‘s if necessary.
8. Return to step 2 and repeat until convergence.
 15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(6)
 Discussion
1. In general, since the pressure-correction
equation produces reasonable velocity fields,
and the pressure equation works out the direct
consequence of a given velocity field,
convergence to the final solution should be
much faster.
15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(7)
2. In SIMPLE, a guessed pressure field plays an
important role. On the other hand, SIMPLER
does not use guessed pressures, but extracts a
pressure field from a given velocity field.
3. Because of the close similarity between the
pressure equation and the pressure-correction
equation, the discussion in previous section
about boundary conditions for p eq. is also
relevant to the pressure equation.
15-8 A Revised Algorithm:
SIMPLER(8)
4. Although SIMPLER has been found to give
faster convergence than SIMPLE, it should be
recognized that one iterations of SIMPLER
involves more computational effort. Since
SIMPLER requires fewer iterations for
convergence, the additional effort per iteration
is more than compensated by the overall saving
of effort
 15-9 The SIMPLEC Algorithm
 SIMPLEC stands for SIMPLE-Consistent.
 It follows the same steps as the SIMPLE
algorithm.
 The u-velocity correction equation of
SIMPLEC is given by
Ae
u e  d e  p e  p e  , d e 
a e   a nb
note : a u    a
e e nb
   p p  p E Ae 
u nb
 15-10 Convergence Criterion
 apΦp=∑anbΦnb+b
 Residual R=∑anbΦnb+b- apΦp
 Obviously, when the discretization eq is
satisfied, R will be zero. A suitable
convergence criterion is to require that the
largest value of |R| be less than a certain
small number.