Measurements

and
Calculations

Chapter 2

1
 Measurement
• Quantitative Observation
• Comparison Based on an Accepted Scale
– e.g. Meter Stick
• Has 2 Parts – the Number and the Unit
– Number Tells Comparison
– Unit Tells Scale

2
 Scientific Notation
• Technique Used to Express Very Large or
Very Small Numbers
• Based on Powers of 10
• To Compare Numbers Written in Scientific
Notation
– First Compare Exponents of 10
– Then Compare Numbers

3
 Writing Numbers in Scientific
Notation
1 Locate the Decimal Point
2 Move the decimal point to the right of the
non-zero digit in the largest place
– The new number is now between 1 and 10
3 Multiply the new number by 10n
– where n is the number of places you moved the
decimal point
4 Determine the sign on the exponent n
– If the decimal point was moved left, n is +
– If the decimal point was moved right, n is –
– If the decimal point was not moved, n is 0
4
 Writing Numbers in Standard
Form
1 Determine the sign of n of 10n
– If n is + the decimal point will move to the right
– If n is – the decimal point will move to the left
2 Determine the value of the exponent of 10
– Tells the number of places to move the
decimal point
3 Move the decimal point and rewrite the
number

5
 Related Units in the Metric
System
• All units in the metric system are related to
the fundamental unit by a power of 10
• The power of 10 is indicated by a prefix
• The prefixes are always the same,
regardless of the fundamental unit

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 Length
• SI unit = meter (m)
– About 3½ inches longer than a yard
• 1 meter = one ten-millionth the distance from the North Pole to
the Equator = distance between marks on standard metal rod in
a Paris vault = distance covered by a certain number of
wavelengths of a special color of light
• Commonly use centimeters (cm)
– 1 m = 100 cm
– 1 cm = 0.01 m = 10 mm
– 1 inch = 2.54 cm (exactly)

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10
Artist's conception of the lost Mars
Climate Orbiter.

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 Volume
• Measure of the amount of three-dimensional space
occupied by a substance
• SI unit = cubic meter (m3)
• Commonly measure solid volume in cubic
centimeters (cm3)
– 1 m3 = 106 cm3
– 1 cm3 = 10-6 m3 = 0.000001 m3
• Commonly measure liquid or gas volume in milliliters
(mL)
– 1 L is slightly larger than 1 quart
– 1 L = 1 dL3 = 1000 mL = 103 mL
– 1 mL = 0.001 L = 10-3 L
– 1 mL = 1 cm3
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Figure 2.2:
The largest drawing
represents a cube that has
1 m in length and a volume
of 1 m3. The middle-size
cube has sides 1 dm in
length and a volume of 1
dm3. The smalles cube has
sides 1 cm in length and a
volume of 1cm3.
Figure 2.3:
A 100-mL
graduated
cylinder.
 Mass
• Measure of the amount of matter present
in an object
• SI unit = kilogram (kg)
• Commonly measure mass in grams (g) or
milligrams (mg)
– 1 kg = 2.2046 pounds, 1 lbs.. = 453.59 g
– 1 kg = 1000 g = 103 g, 1 g = 1000 mg = 103
mg
– 1 g = 0.001 kg = 10-3 kg, 1 mg = 0.001 g =
10-3 g
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 Temperature Scales
• Fahrenheit Scale, °F
– Water’s freezing point = 32°F, boiling point = 212°F
• Celsius Scale, °C
– Temperature unit larger than the Fahrenheit
– Water’s freezing point = 0°C, boiling point = 100°C
• Kelvin Scale, K
– Temperature unit same size as Celsius
– Water’s freezing point = 273 K, boiling point = 373 K

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Temperature

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Figure 2.6: Thermometers based on the three
temperature scales in (a) ice water and (b)
boiling water.

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Uncertainty in Measured Numbers
• A measurement always has some
amount of uncertainty
• Uncertainty comes from limitations of
the techniques used for comparison
• To understand how reliable a
measurement is, we need to understand
the limitations of the measurement

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 Reporting Measurements
• To indicate the uncertainty of a single
measurement scientists use a system
called significant figures
• The last digit written in a measurement
is the number that is considered to be
uncertain
• Unless stated otherwise, the uncertainty
in the last digit is ±1

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 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures
• Nonzero integers are always significant
• Zeros
– Leading zeros never count as significant
figures
– Captive (embedded) zeros are always
significant
– Trailing zeros are significant if the number
has a decimal point
• Exact numbers have an unlimited
number of significant figures
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 Rules for Rounding Off
• If the digit to be removed
• is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same
• is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit
is increased by 1
• In a series of calculations, carry the extra
digits to the final result and then round off
• Don’t forget to add place-holding zeros if
necessary to keep value the same!!

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 Exact Numbers
• Exact Numbers are numbers known with
certainty
• Unlimited number of significant figures
• They are either
– counting numbers
• number of sides on a square
– or defined
• 100 cm = 1 m, 12 in = 1 ft, 1 in = 2.54 cm
• 1 kg = 1000 g, 1 LB = 16 oz
• 1000 mL = 1 L; 1 gal = 4 qts.
• 1 minute = 60 seconds

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 Calculations with Significant
Figures
• Calculators/computers do not know
about significant figures!!!
• Exact numbers do not affect the number
of significant figures in an answer
• Answers to calculations must be
rounded to the proper number of
significant figures
– round at the end of the calculation
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 Multiplication/Division with
Significant Figures
• Result has the same number of significant
figures as the measurement with the smallest
number of significant figures
• Count the number of significant figures in each
measurement
• Round the result so it has the same number of
significant figures as the measurement with the
smallest number of significant figures
4.5 cm x 0.200 cm = 0.90 cm2
2 sig figs 3 sig figs 2 sig figs

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 Adding/Subtracting Numbers
with Significant Figures
• Result is limited by the number with the
smallest number of significant decimal
places
• Find last significant figure in each
measurement
• Find which one is “left-most”
• Round answer to the same decimal place
450 mL + 27.5 mL = 480 mL
precise to 10’s place precise to 0.1’s place precise to 10’s place
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 Problem Solving and Dimensional
Analysis
• Many problems in chemistry involve using
equivalence statements to convert one unit of
measurement to another
• Conversion factors are relationships between two
units
– May be exact or measured
– Both parts of the conversion factor should have the
same number of significant figures
• Conversion factors generated from equivalence
statements 2.54cm 1in
– e.g. 1 inch = 2.54 cm can give1in 2.54cm
or 30
 Problem Solving and Dimensional
Analysis
• Arrange conversion factors so starting unit
cancels
– Arrange conversion factor so starting unit is
on the bottom of the conversion factor
• May string conversion factors

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Converting One Unit to Another
• Find the relationship(s) between the
starting and goal units. Write an
equivalence statement for each
relationship.
• Write a conversion factor for each
equivalence statement.
• Arrange the conversion factor(s) to
cancel starting unit and result in goal
unit.
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Converting One Unit to Another
• Check that the units cancel properly
• Multiply and Divide the numbers to give
the answer with the proper unit.
• Check your significant figures
• Check that your answer makes sense!

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 Density
• Density is a property of matter representing the mass per
unit volume
• For equal volumes, denser object has larger mass
• For equal masses, denser object has small volume
• Solids = g/cm3
– 1 cm3 = 1 mL Mass
• Liquids = g/mL
Density 
Volume
• Gases = g/L
• Volume of a solid can be determined by water
displacement
• Density : solids > liquids >>> gases
• In a heterogeneous mixture, denser object sinks 34
Using Density in Calculations
Mass Mass
Density  Volume 
Volume Density
Mass  Density  Volume

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Figure 2.11:
A hydrometer
being used to
determine the
density of the
antifreeze
solution in a
car’s radiator.