Nursing Research

-includes the study of all aspects, components,

activities and phenomena relating to health and of
interest to nurses.
Importance of Research In Nursing:
So that we could: describe, explain, predict and control
 Purpose:
 1.to generate new knowledge
 2.to develop new gadgets, techniques

 3.to evaluate a program or technique

 4.to validate theories

 TYPES:
 1.According to motive or purpose
 a.basic- for knowledge sake

 b.applied- practical, knowledge

generated
 2.According to methodology
 a.descriptive- exploration and description of a
phenomena in real life situations
- may use survey method

- common methods used are questionnaire,

interview, observation
 b.Correlation- examines linear relations
between 2 or more variables
- determines the type ( + or - ) and degree of
relationship
 c.Quasi- experimental- examines cause
and effect
- done in partially controlled situations

- Quasi experiment may or may not have

control groups and random
assignment may or may not be made.
  d.experimental- examines cause and effect
- done in highly controlled conditions

- independent variable is manipulated

 True experiment has three features:

 1.subjects are randomly assigned
 2.experimental variable is manipulated
 3.with at least 2 groups-experimental and
control.
 e. historical- study conducted regarding
the past.
 Limitations in Nursing research:
 1.Ethico- legal considerations
 2.Measurement problem
 a.face validity- doing pretests by giving
questionnaire
 b.contrast validity- done by giving the tool to
group of experts
 Differences between the two Basic Types of
Research:
 1.Qualitative- collection of narrative data
- undertaken to describe natural phenomena
without controlling or manipulating
variables
- examples: historical research,researches
regarding beliefs and practices, experiences
 2.Qualitative- collection of numerical data
- statistical analysis, control research
conditions
- examples: experimental studies, extent of
knowledge, effectiveness
 Steps in the Research Process:
1.Identify the problem
2.Conduct literature review
3.Identify theoretical/conceptual framework
4.Formulate hypothesis
5.Operational variables
6.Select research design
7.Ascertain and select sample
8.Conduct a pilot study
9.Collect data
10.Analyze data
11.Interpret results
12.Disseminate information
 Research Problem:
 Is a situation in need of description or quantification,
solution, improvement or alteration.
 You can evaluate these problems by using the
following criteria:
1.Significance of the problem
2.Researchability of the problem
3.Feasibility
4.Interest to the researcher
 Sources of problem:
 1.experience
 2.review of rel literature
 .issues and popular concern
 4.replication studies
 5.intellectual curiosity
Purposes of a literature review:
1.Search for research ideas/topics
2.Be oriented on what is known
3.Establish the conceptual context of our study
4.Assess the feasibility of the study that we are
planning
5.Be informed on research approach
 Sources of data:
 1.Primary data- provided directly by the
subjects under study, the most unbiased raw
material
 Example: letters, diaries, speeches, interview
 2.Secondary data- involve someone who is not
directly the source of information
 Ex: opinions, write ups
 Data collected based on time orientation:
 1.retrospective- certain events in the present is
linked to a particular phenomenon in the past.
 2.Cross-sectional- involves different age
groups
 3.Longitudinal- one group is studied for a
longer period of time
Framework:
Is an abstract logical structure of meaning that guides
the development of the study and enables the
researcher to link the findings to nursing body of
knowledge.
A conceptual framework- deals with abstractions that
are put together because of their relevance to a
common theme.
Unlike a theoretical framework, it does not have a
deductive system or propositions that assert a
relationship between the concepts.
 Hypothesis:
-is a statement of the anticipated or expected
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
 Types:
 1.Null hypothesis- states no relationship
between variables
 2.Research hypothesis- gives the predicted
relationship
 Complexity of Hypothesis:
 1.Simple- one independent and one dependent
variable
 2.Complex or Multivariate- 2 or more
independent or dependent variable
 Variable
-Is any quality of a person, institution or situation that
varies or takes on different values.
 Independent vs dependent variables:
 An independent variable is the presumed “cause”
while the dependent variable is the presumed “effect”.
The variability in the dependent variable is presumed
to be due to the variability in the independent
variable.
 Extraneous vs intervening
 Extraneous variables are other factors that affects the
measurement of the IV or DV
 Example: knowledge, attitude
 Intervening variables is any factor that is not directly
observable in research situation but which maybe
affecting the behavior of the subject.
 Examples:
 1.Problems and coping strategies of
COPD Patient.
 IV- COPD, DV- Degree of seriousness,
IV- problems and coping strategies
 2.Difficulties of nursing students in
doing nursing research: A basis for
research enhancement
 IV- nsng research, DV- difficulties, EV- a
basis for research enhancement
 3.Transcultural care rendered by staff
nurses to hypertensive patients.
 IV- transcultural care, DV-level of care
 Operational Definition:
Is a specification of the operations that researcher
must perform to collect the required information.
 Examples of data collection methods:
-physiological/biological measures
-observational methods-use of checklists and rating
scales
-interviews
-use of questionnaires
-psychological measures
-content analysis
-diaries
 Difference between validity and reliability:
-The validity of research tool is the extent to which the
instrument actually reflects the construct or variable
being examined.
 a. External- applicability and generality of findings
 b. Internal- truth value of findings
-Reliability is concerned with how consistently the
measurement technique measures the concept of
interest.
 Different levels of measurement in research:
NOMINAL- is used when data can be organized into
categories of a defined property but the categories can
not be compared.
ORDINAL- is used when data can be assigned to
categories of an attribute that can be ranked.
INTERVAL- have equal numerical distances between
intervals in the scale; there is no absolute zero point.
RATIO- is the highest form of measure; similar to
interval except that it has an absolute zero point.
 Difference between non-probability and probability
sampling:
-In non-probability sampling, not every element of the
population has an opportunity to be included.
Examples: accidental/convenience, quota, purposive
and network/snowballing
-In probability sampling, every member of the
population has a probability of being included in the
sample.
Examples: simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling, cluster sampling and systematic sampling.
 Data Summary and Analysis:
-Frequency tabulations
-Measure of central tendency-mean, median, mode
 Ethical issues and considerations in research:
1. Autonomy
-The researcher should get the research
participants/respondents’ informed consent.
Informed consent implies that:
1.the participant received adequate
information about the research project
2.the participant understood what
he/she is expected to do and the
implications of his/her participation
3.he/she participated voluntarily.
2. Right to privacy
-The researcher should ensure the anonymity of the
research participants and the confidentiality of the
data/information collected from them.
3. Anonymity
-Protection of participants in a study that even the
researcher can not link them with the information
they provided.
4. Confidentiality
-Protection of the participants that their identities will
not be linked to the information they provided and
will never publicly divulged.
5. Beneficence
-Implies the benefits of the research to the research
subject/participants. This should be adequately
explained to the participants.
6. Nonmaleficence
-means avoidance of harm or reduction of risks to the
research subject. The researcher should weigh the
risks and the benefits of the study. The benefits should
be far greater than the risks.
7. Social Justice
Includes these issues:
1.right to be represented in the sample
2.right of equal access to knowledge
3.right not to be discriminated against
Elements of an ethical research:
1.protecting subjects’ rights
2.balancing the benefits and risks in a study
3.obtaining informed consent
4.obtaining institutional approval for research
 NUREMBERG CODE- guide researchers to conduct
human experimentation – informed consent

 DECLARATION OF HELSINSKI- experiment should

not be done in violation of human rights.
Contents of a research proposal:
1. Problem (background of the study, objectives of the
study, statement of the problem, significance of the
study, scope and limitation of the study, definition of
terms)
2. Theoretical background (review of literature,
conceptual framework, hypotheses)
3. Methodology (research design, research setting,
sampling design, sample size, statistical analysis, data
gathering process, research tools, and ethical
considerations)
4. Plan for data analysis and interpretation.