My

Chapter 18
Lecture
Outline

1
Chapter 18: Electric Current and
Circuits
•Electric current
•EMF
•Current & Drift Velocity
•Resistance & Resistivity
•Kirchhoff’s Rules
•Series & Parallel Circuit Elements
•Applications of Kichhoff’s Rules
•Power & Energy
•Ammeters & Voltmeters
•RC Circuits
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 §18.1 Electric Current

e- e- e-
e-
e-
A metal wire.
e- e- e-

Assume electrons
flow to the right.

q Current is a measure of the amount

Current : I  of charge that passes though an area
t
perpendicular to the flow of charge.

Current units: 1C/sec = 1 amp

3
A current will flow until there is no potential difference.

The direction of current flow in a wire is opposite the flow of

the electrons. (In the previous drawing the current is to the
left.)

4
Example: If a current of 80.0 mA exists in a metal wire, how
many electrons flow past a given cross-section of the wire in
10.0 minutes?

q
I
t
 
q  It  80.0 103 A 600 sec   48.0 C

q
# of electrons 
charge per electron
48.0 C

1.60 10 19 C/electron
 3.00 1020 electrons
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 §18.2 EMF and Circuits

An ideal battery maintains a constant potential difference.

This potential difference is called the battery’s EMF().

The work done by an ideal battery in pumping a charge q

is W = q.

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 At high potential

The circuit symbol for a

+
battery (EMF source) is 

At low potential

Batteries do work by converting chemical energy into

electrical energy. A battery dies when it can no longer
sustain its chemical reactions and so can do no more work
to move charges.

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 §18.3 Microscopic View of Current
in a Metal

Electrons in a metal might have a speed of ~106 m/s, but

since the direction of travel is random, an electron has
vdrift = 0.

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Only when the ends of a wire are at different potentials
(E  0) will there be a net flow of electrons along the
wire (vdrift  0). Typically, vdrift < 1 mm/sec.

9
Calculate the number of charges (Ne) that pass through the
shaded region in a time t:

N e  n( Al )
l
 nA(vd t )

q eN e
The current in the wire is: I    neAvd
t t

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Example (text problem 18.19): A copper wire of cross-
sectional area 1.00 mm2 has a constant current of 2.0 A
flowing along its length. What is the drift speed of the
conduction electrons? Copper has 1.101029 electrons/m3.

I  neAvd
I 2.0 A
vd  
  
neA 1.10 10 29 m 3 1.60 10 19 C 1.00 10 6 m 2 
 1.110 4 m/sec  0.11 mm/sec

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 §18.4 Resistance and Resistivity

A material is considered ohmic if VI, where

V  IR

The proportionality constant R is called resistance and is

measured in ohms (; and 1  = 1 V/A).

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 L
The resistance of a conductor is: R  
A

where  is the resistivity of the material, L is the length of

the conductor, and A is its cross sectional area.

With R a material is considered a conductor if  is “small”

and an insulator if  is “large”.

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The resistivity of a material depends on its temperature:

  0 1   T  T0 

where 0 is the resistivity at the temperature T0, and  is

the temperature coefficient of resistivity.

A material is called a superconductor if  = 0.

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Example (text problem 18.28): The resistance of a conductor
is 19.8  at 15.0 C and 25.0  at 85.0 C. What is the
temperature coefficient of resistivity?

Values of R are given at different temperatures, not

values of . But the two quantities are related.

  0 1   T  T0  (2)
L
R (1)
A

Multiply both sides of equation (2) by L/A and use

equation (1) to get:

R  R0 1   T  T0  (3)
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Example continued:

Solve equation (3) for  and evaluate using the given

quantities:

R
1 25.0 
1

R0
 19.8   3.75 10 3 C 1
T 85.0 C  15.0 C

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 §18.5 Kirchhoff’s Rules

Junction rule: The current that flows into a junction is the

same as the current that flows out. (Charge is conserved)

A junction is a place where two or more wires (or other

components) meet.

Loop rule: The sum of the voltage dropped around a closed

loop is zero. (Energy is conserved.)

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For a resistor: If you cross a resistor in the direction of the
current flow, the voltage drops by an amount IR (write as
IR). There is a voltage rise if you cross the other way
(write as +IR).

A If the current flows from A to B, then

I the potential decreases from A to B.
The potential difference between A
B and B is < 0 (V = IR) .

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For batteries (or other sources of EMF): If you move from
the positive to the negative terminal the potential drops by 
(write as ). The potential rises if you cross in the other
direction (write as +).

At high potential

 
+

At low potential

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A current will only flow around a closed loop.

A B

VAB  IR  0 VAB is the

Applying the loop rule: terminal voltage.
  Ir  IR  0
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In a circuit, if the current always flows in the same direction
it is called a direct current (DC) circuit.

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 §18.6 Series and Parallel Circuits
Resistors:

The current through the two

resistors is the same. It is not
“used up” as it flows around
the circuit!

These resistors are in series.

Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:   IR1  IR2  0

  IR1  IR2  I ( R1  R2 )  IReq
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The pair of resistors R1 and R2 can be replaced with a single
equivalent resistor provided that Req = R1 + R2.

In general, for resistors in series Req  R1  R2    Rn

n
  Ri .
i 1

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Current only flows around closed loops. When the current
reaches point A it splits into two currents. R1 and R2 do not
have the same current through them, they are in parallel.

Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:

  I1 R1  0
  I 2 R2  0

The potential drop across

each resistor is the same.

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Applying the junction rule at A: I = I1+ I2.

From the loop rules:   I1R1  I 2 R2

Substituting for I1 and I2 in the junction rule:

 
I 
R1 R2
I 1 1 1
  
 R1 R2 Req

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The pair of resistors R1 and R2 can be replaced with a
single equivalent resistor provided that

1 1 1
  .
Req R1 R2

In general, for resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R2 Rn
n
1
 .
i 1 Ri

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Example (text problem 18.40): In the given circuit, what is
the total resistance between points A and B?

R1 = 15
A

R2 =
R3 =
12 
24 

1 1 1
R2 and R3 are in parallel. Replace  
with an equivalent resistor R23. R23 R2 R3
R23  8 
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Example continued:

The circuit can now be redrawn:

R1 = 15
A
The resistors R23
and R1 are in series:
R23 = 8 
R123  R1  R23
 23   Req
B

A
Is the equivalent
R123 = circuit and the total
23  resistance is 23 .
B 28
Capacitors:
C1 C2

For capacitors in series the charge

on the plates is the same.


Q Q
  0
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule: C1 C2
 1 1 1
  
Q C1 C2 Ceq

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The pair of capacitors C1 and C2 can be replaced with a
single equivalent capacitor provided that

1 1 1
  .
Ceq C1 C2

In general, for capacitors in series

1 1 1 1
  
Ceq C1 C2 Cn
n
1
 .
i 1 Ci

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 C2
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
C1 Q1
  0
C1
Q2
 0
C2


For capacitors in parallel the charge on the plates may be

different. Here
Qeq  Q1  Q2
 Ceq   C1   C2

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The pair of capacitors C1 and C2 can be replaced with a
single equivalent capacitor provided that Ceq= C1 + C2.

In general, for capacitors in parallel

n
Ceq  C1  C2    Cn   Ci .
i 1

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Example (text problem 18.49): Find the value of a single
capacitor that replaces the three in the circuit below if
C1 = C2 = C3 = 12 F.
C1

C2 and C3 are in parallel

C3 C2
C23  C2  C3
 24 F
B

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Example continued:

The circuit can be redrawn:

C1

A
The remaining two capacitors
are in series.
1 1 1
 
C23 C123 C1 C23
1 1
 
12 F 24 F
B
C123  8 F
A

C123 Is the final, equivalent circuit.

B 34
§18.8 Power and Energy in Circuits

U q
The energy dissipation rate is: P  V  IV
t t

For an EMF source: P  I

V 2
For a resistor: P  IV  I 2 R 
R

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Example: Use the results of the example starting on slide 35
to determine the power dissipated by the three resistors in
that circuit.

P  I 2R

Resistance () Current (A) Power (W)

122 0.199 4.83
5.6 0.123 0.0847
75 0.0760 0.433

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 §18.9 Measuring Currents and
Voltages

Current is measured with an ammeter. An ammeter is placed

in series with a circuit component.

A1 A1 measures the
An ammeter R1 current through R1.
has a low
internal A2
A2 measures the
resistance. R2 current through R2.
A3 A3 measures the
current drawn from
 the EMF.
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A voltmeter is used to measure the potential drop across a
circuit element. It is placed in parallel with the component.
A voltmeter has a large internal resistance.

V The voltmeter measures the

voltage drop across R1.

R1

R2


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 §18.10 RC Circuits

Switch
R Close the switch at t = 0 to
 start the flow of current. The
C
+ capacitor is being charged.
+ 


Q
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:   IR   0
C
Q
Note : I 
t
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The current I(t) that satisfies Kirchhoff’s loop rule is:

I t   I 0 e
t



where I0  and   RC .
R

 is the RC time constant and is a measure of

the charge (and discharge) rate of a capacitor.

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The voltage drop  t 
across the capacitor is: VC t    1  e  
 

The voltage drop

across the resistor is: VR t   I t R

Q C t   CVC t 
The charge on the
capacitor is:

Note: Kirchhoff’s loop rule must be satisfied for all times.

41
Plots of the voltage drop across the (charging) capacitor
and current in the circuit.

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While the capacitor is charging S2 is open. After the capacitor
is fully charged S1 is opened at the same time S2 is closed:
this removes the battery from the circuit. Current will now
flow in the right hand loop only, discharging the capacitor.

S1
I Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
R
S2
+
 C Q
 IR   0
C

I t   I 0e
t

The current in the circuit is .

But the voltage drop across the capacitor is now VC t    e

t

.
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The voltage drop across the discharging capacitor:

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Example (text problem 18.85): A capacitor is charged to an
initial voltage of V0 = 9.0 volts. The capacitor is then
discharged through a resistor. The current is measured and
is shown in the figure.

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Example continued:

(a) Find C, R, and the total energy dissipated in the resistor.

Use the graph to determine . I0 = 100 mA; the current is

I0/e = 36.8 mA at t = 13 msec.

I 0  100 mA 
R
  13 msec  RC
Since  = V0 = 9.0 volts, R = 90  and C = 144 F.

All of the energy stored in the capacitor is eventually

dissipated by the resistor.
1
U  CV0  5.8 10 3 J
2

2 46
Example continued:

(b) At what time is the energy in the capacitor half of the

initial value?
1 1
U (t )  CV (t ) and U (t  0)  CV02
2

2 2

1 1
Want: U (t )  U (t  0)  CV02
2 4
1 1
CV (t )  CV02
2

2 4
1
V (t )  V0
2
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Example continued:

Solve for t:

t 1
V (t )  V0 e 
 V0
2
t   ln 2  13 msec  ln 2  4.5 msec

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 Summary
•Current & Drift Velocity
•Resistance & Resistivity
•Ohm’s Law
•Kirchhoff’s Rules
•Series/Parallel Resistors/Capacitors
•Power
•Voltmeters & Ammeters
• RC Circuits
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