2.

Electric Potential Energy,

Potential and Capacitance

EPF 0024 PHY II 1

 Outline

 2.1 Electric Potential Energy and the Electric Potential

 2.2 Energy Conservation
 2.3 The Electron Volt (eV)
 2.4 Electric Potential of a Point Charge
 2.5 Equipotential Lines and Surfaces
 2.6 Capacitor
 2.7 Dielectric
 2.8 Storage of Electrical Energy
 2.9 Electric Energy and Power in Current Electricity

EPF 0024 PHY II 2

Topics for today's lecture:

 Electric Potential Energy and the Electric Potential.

 Energy Conservation.

 The Electron Volt (eV).

EPF 0024 PHY II 3

Objectives of this lecture:

 Explain the concepts of Electric Potential Energy,

Electric Potential and Electric Potential Difference.

 Discuss energy conservation in electric fields

 Introduce a new unit of energy called the Electron Volt

(eV) and its relation to the joule (J).

 Solve Problems related to these concepts.

EPF 0024 PHY II 4

2.1 Electric Potential Energy and the
Electric Potential

In Physics I the concepts of work & energy have been

introduced in a mechanical context. In this section
these concepts are used in the context of electric fields.

A charged particle moves in an electric field as a result

of the field doing work on it. A charged particle in an
electric field therefore has electric potential energy , UE,
which is associated with a concept called electric
potential or simply potential, V. In circuits, potential is
called voltage.

EPF 0024 PHY II 5

 Fig. 2.1: Electric & Gravitational Potential Energy

Fig. 2.1 shows a uniform E. A +ve test charge q0 is placed

at A and experiences a downward electric force of
magnitude F = q0E which displaces it to point B.
+ + + +
A U A  q0Ey A High PE A U A  mgyA
+ q0 m

yA
E B U B  q0EyB B U B  mgyB

yB
F = q0E F = mg
Low PE
- - - -

Ground level = zero potential

EPF 0024 PHY II 6
 2.1.1 Electric Potential Energy

The work done WAB by the electric force F:

WAB  - F  yB - y A   - F - y   q0 Ey (2.1)
While the change in potential energy U is -ve:
ΔU  U B - U A  q0 EyB - q0 Ey A  -q0 EΔy (2.2)
 Therefore
WAB  -U (2.3)
Where U is set to zero is arbitrary. The absolute
U of a test charge q0 is set to zero with respect to a
charge q when they are infinitely far apart.
EPF 0024 PHY II 7
2.1.2 Electric Potential

The electric potential V is defined as

U
V (2.4)
q0
U  qV
or U  q0V

V is a scalar quantity that is independent of

the charge q. The SI unit of the electric
potential is joule/coulomb = volt, symbol V.

EPF 0024 PHY II 8

2.1.3 The Electron Volt (eV)

We see in equation (2.4) that the electric

potential energy is given by U  qV .

This equation suggests, at the atomic level, a

convenient and commonly used unit of energy
called the Electron Volt (eV) defined as
 
1 eV  1e1V   1.60 10-19 C 1 V   1.60 10-19 J (2.5)

EPF 0024 PHY II 9

2.2 Electric Potential difference

The electric potential difference V between

the two points yA and yB in Fig. 2.1 is then:
ΔU - WAB q0 EΔy
ΔV   -  - EΔy (2.5)
q0 q0 q0

From which we obtain the important relation

between E and V, that is
ΔV (2.6)
E-
Δy
(The SI Unit for E can therefore also be volts/meter, V/m).
EPF 0024 PHY II 10
2.3 Energy Conservation

Gravitational potential energy U of a mass m

dropped in gravitational field decreases while
its kinetic energy K increases. The total energy,
however, remains the same (i.e. is conserved).

The same applies to the electric field, i.e:

K A +U A  KB +U B
1
2 mvA2 + U A  12 mvB2 + U B (2.7)
1
2 m(vB2 - v A2 )  U A - U B  qVA - VB 

EPF 0024 PHY II 11

Example 1

The work done by the electric force as a test

charge (q0 = + 2.0  10-6 C) moves from A to B is
WAB = + 5.0  10-5 J. (a) Find U = UB – UA
between these points. (b) Determine V = VB – VA.

EPF 0024 PHY II 12

Solution

(a) ΔU  -WAB
 -5.0 10 -5 J

(b) ΔV  ΔU
q0
- 5.0 10-5 J
 -6
 -25 V
2.0 10 C

EPF 0024 PHY II 13

Example 2

An electron in the tube of a television set is

accelerated from rest through a potential
difference of 5000V. (a) What is the change in
potential energy of the electron? (b) What is the
speed of the electron (m = 9.110-31 kg) as a
result of this acceleration? (c) Repeat for a
proton (m = 1.67  10-27 kg) that accelerates
through a potential difference of 5000V.

EPF 0024 PHY II 14

Solution

(a) From equation (2.4) we find

ΔU  qΔV
 
 - 1.6 10 -19 C 5000 V 
 -8.0 10 -16 J

The negative sign here indicates that the

electron is losing potential energy while
going from a position of low potential
energy to high potential energy.
EPF 0024 PHY II 15
(b) The potential energy lost becomes Kinetic
Energy gained by the electron. From
conservation of energy principle we write:

ΔU + ΔK  0 or ΔK  -ΔU
1 2
mv f - 0  -ΔU  8.0 10 -16
2

vf 

2 8.0 10 -16 C 

2(8.0 10 -16 C)
 4. 2  10 7
m/s
-31
me 9.110 kg

EPF 0024 PHY II 16

(c) A proton accelerating in an electric field goes
from a position of high to low potential energy
hence the change in potential V is negative,
that is
ΔU  qΔV  (1.6 10 -19 C)( -5000V)  -8.0 10 -16 J

vf 
 
2 8.0 10 -16 J

2(8.0 10 -16 J )
 9.8  10 5
m/s
- 27
mp 1.67 10 kg

EPF 0024 PHY II 17

Example 3

Find U as a charge of (a) +2.20  10-6 C or

(b) -1.10  10-6 C moves from a point A to B,
given that V = VB – VA = +24.0 V (positive
implies B at higher potential compared to A).

EPF 0024 PHY II 18

Solution

(a) ΔU  qΔV
 
 2.20 10 -6 C 24.0 V 
 5.28 10 -5 J

(b) ΔU  qΔV
 
 - 1.10 10 -6 C 24.0 V 
 -2.64 10 -5 J

EPF 0024 PHY II 19

 y
Example 4
x

+ + + +
The work done by the electric force
as a test charge (q0=+2.0  10-6 C) A +q0
moves from A to B is
WAB = +5.0  10-5 J. (a) Determine F = q0E
U = UB-UA. (b) Find V = VB – VA.
(c) What is magnitude of E if
B
distance between A and B is 0.25 m? E
_ _ _ _

EPF 0024 PHY II 20

Solution
-5
(a) ΔU  U B - U A  -WAB  -5.0 10 J
ΔU
(b) ΔV  VB - VA 
q0
- 5.0 10 -5 J
 -6
 -25 V
2.0 10 C

(c) E  -
ΔV
-
VB - VA 
-
- 25 V
 -100 V/m
Δy  yB - y A  - 0.25 m
Magnitude of E is 100 V/m and the -ve
indicates that E points in –ve y direction
EPF 0024 PHY II 21
Example 5

A uniform electric field with a magnitude of

6250 N/C points in the positive x direction.
Find the change in electric potential energy
when a + 12.5 C charge is moved 5.50 cm
in (a) the positive x direction, (b) the negative
x direction, and (c) in the positive y direction.

EPF 0024 PHY II 22

Solution
V
E- , U  qV  -qEx
x
(a) U  -qEx

 
 N
 - 12.5 10 C  6250 0.0550 m   -4.30 mJ
-6

 C

(c) U  -qEx
 
 N
 - 12.5 10 C  6250 - 0.0550 m   4.30 mJ
-6

 C

(b) U  -qEx  -qE0  0

EPF 0024 PHY II 23
Example 6

When an ion accelerates through a potential

difference of + 2850 V the change in its
electric potential energy is - 1.37  10-15 J.
What is the sign and magnitude of the charge
on the ion?

EPF 0024 PHY II 24

Solution

U
V 
q
U - 1.37 10 -15 J
q 
V 2850 V
 -4.8110 -19 C

It is a negative charge with magnitude of 4.81  10-19 C

EPF 0024 PHY II 25

Today’s topics include:

2.4 Electric Potential of a Point Charge

2.5 Equipotential Lines and Surfaces

EPF 0024 PHY II 26

 Objectives of this lecture:

To determine an expression for the potential due

to a point charge.

To explain the meaning of equipotential lines.

To solve problems related to these concepts.

EPF 0024 PHY II 27

2.4 Electric Potential of a Point Charge

Fig 2.2 shows a point charge +q fixed at origin.

A +ve test charge +q0 is held at rest at A a
distance rA from the origin.

Test charge experiences

a repulsive force of
magnitude given by
qq0
rA F k 2
rA

EPF 0024 PHY II 28

 The work done by the electric field in moving the
test charge +q0 from position rA to rB using integral
calculus is
WAB   F.dr   F r dr  kq0 q 
rB rB rB1
2
dr
rA rA rA r
(2.9)
 q0 q 
rB
 
1 q0 q q0 q q0 q
 kq0 q -    - k +k   k -k
 r  rA  rB rA  rA rB

From the above expression the change in electric

potential energy of test charge is:

 q0 q q0 q  q0 q q0 q

U  -WAB  - k -k 
 k -k  U B -U A (2.10)
 rA rB  rB rA

EPF 0024 PHY II 29

V is given by:
U kq kq
ΔV   - (2.11)
q0 rB rA

If rA is taken to be at infinity then

kq kq
ΔV  VB - V  -0  (2.12)
rB r
and U for a test charge q0 is then
kqq0
U  q0V  (2.13)
r

EPF 0024 PHY II 30

The net potential at a point due to a group of
point charges can be calculated by summing
potentials. For n point charges, net potential is

n n
qi
V  V1 + V2 + V3 + - - + Vn  Vi  k  (2.14)
i 1 i 1 ri

EPF 0024 PHY II 31

Example 1

What minimum work is required by an external

force to bring a charge q1 = +3.0  10-6 C from a
great distance away (take r = infinity) to a point
0.5 m from a charge q2 = +20  10-6 C?

EPF 0024 PHY II 32

Solution

The work, W, required is same as

WA  -U  U  - U A 
 q1q2 q1q2  q1q2
 -k  -   k
 r rA  rA


 8.99 10 Nm /C
9 2 2 3.0  10 -6
C
20  10 -6
C 
0.5 m
 1.08 J

EPF 0024 PHY II 33

Example 2
Calculate the electric potential at points A and
B due to charges q1 and q2 as shown Fig.
y
A B
60 cm

40 cm
30 cm
40 cm

26 cm 26 cm x
q2 = +50 C q1 = -50 C

EPF 0024 PHY II 34

Solution

The potential at point A is

kq2 kq1  q2 q1 
VA  VA2 + VA1  +  k  + 
rA2 rA1  rA2 rA1 
  -5
-  -5
C

 8.99 10 N.m /C 
9 2 2 5

. 0 10 C
+
5. 0 10

 0.3 m 0.6 m 
 1.5 106 V - 0.75 106 V  7.5 105 V

EPF 0024 PHY II 35

Solution (continued)
At point B
kq2 kq1  q2 q1 
VB  VB2 + VB1  +  k  + 
rB2 rB1  rB2 rB1 
  -5
-  -5
C

 8.99 10 N.m /C 
9 2 2

5.0 10 C
+
5.0 10

 0.4 m 0.4 m 
0V

the potential is zero everywhere on the plane

equidistant between the two charges. This plane
is called an equipotential surface with V = 0.
EPF 0024 PHY II 36
Example 3

A charge q = 4.11  10-9 C is placed at the origin,

and a second charge –2q is placed on the x-axis
at x = 1.00 m. (a) Find V midway between the two
charges. (b) V vanishes at some point P between
the charges; that is, for a value of x between 0
and 1.00 m. Find this value of x.
+y

+q P –2q
0 +x
x
1.00 m

EPF 0024 PHY II 37

 Solution
1 2
(a) V  kq - 
 rA rB 

  -9 1
 8.99 10 N.m /C 4.1110 C 
9 2 2
 -
2 

 0.50 m 0.50 m 
 -73.9 V
(b) Setting V = 0 we obtain
kq k - 2q  1.00 m - 3x
V +  0
x 1.00 m - x  x1.00 m - x 
1
1.00 m - 3x  0, x  m
3
EPF 0024 PHY II 38
2.5 Equipotential Lines and surfaces

The electric potential can be represented by

equipotential lines or surfaces as shown by the
green lines in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3: Equipotential lines (green lines)

EPF 0024 PHY II 39
By definition, an equipotential line/surface is
one in which all points on it are at the same
potential. That is to say, the potential difference
(V) between any two points on it is zero.

Equipotential lines/surfaces are always

perpendicular to the electric field. Note that a
conductor must be entirely at the same
potential in static case. The surface of a
conductor is therefore an equipotential surface.

EPF 0024 PHY II 40

Today’s lecture include:

Capacitor

Dielectric

Storage of Electrical Energy

Electric Energy and Power in Current

Electricity

EPF 0024 PHY II 41

Objectives of this lecture:

To provide expressions for capacitance of a

capacitor.

To explain dielectric.

To analyze energy stored in a capacitor and

electric energy in current electricity.

To solve problems related to these concepts.

EPF 0024 PHY II 42
2.6 Capacitor
 A capacitor consists of a pair of metal plates of area A
separated by a small distance as shown in Fig. 2.5 for a
parallel- plate capacitor.

Circuit symbol

Fig. 2.5: A Parallel-Plate Capacitor

EPF 0024 PHY II 43
2.6.1 Charging a Parallel-Plate Capacitor

When p.d. (voltage) V is

applied to a capacitor, it is
charged (Fig 2.6). Charge Q
acquired by each plate is
directly proportional to V
Q
Q  CV or C  (2.15)
V
where C is proportionality
constant called capacitance Fig. 2.6: Charging a
of the capacitor. SI unit C/V Parallel-Plate Capacitor
or farad (F).
EPF 0024 PHY II 44
2.6.2 Calculating the Capacitance

For a parallel-plate capacitor

with area A and separation d
(Fig. 2.7), the capacitance is
also proportional to A and
inversely proportional to d:
A
C  0 (2.15)
d
The proportionality constant
is found to have the value 0, Fig. 2.7: A parallel-
the permitivity of free space. plate capacitor

EPF 0024 PHY II 45

2.6.3 Calculating the E in a capacitor

Using equation 2.6 and

taking the voltage at +ve
plate to be V and at –ve plate
to equal zero (Fig. 2.8), we
obtain an expression for E
inside a capacitor thus:
V
E-
x (2.16)
V2 - V1 0 -V V
- - 
x2 - x1 d -0 d
Fig. 2.8: A parallel-
plate capacitor
EPF 0024 PHY II 46
Example 1

(a) Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate

capacitor whose plates are 20 cm by 3 cm and
are separated by a 1.0 mm air gap. (b) What is
the charge on each plate if the capacitor is
connected to a 12 V battery? (c) What is the
electric field between the plates?

EPF 0024 PHY II 47

Solution

(a) C   0 A
d
 6.0  10 -3
m 2

 (8.85 10 C /N.m )
-12 2 2
-3
  53 pF
 1.0 10 m 
(b) Q  CV  53 10-12 F12 V   6.4 10-10 C

V 12V
(c) E   -3
 1.2  10 4
V/m
d 1.0  10 m

EPF 0024 PHY II 48

2.7 Dielectric

In most capacitors, an insulating sheet called a

dielectric is placed between the plates. This
increases the capacitance of the capacitor.

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor whose plates

are separated by an air gap. If the capacitor is
isolated (i.e. not connected to a battery) and
carries a charge Q and has voltage V0 across its
terminals, the capacitance will be given by
C0= Q/V0. Let the electric field be E0.

EPF 0024 PHY II 49

A dielectric is placed in between the plates
becomes polarized as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.9: Dielectric effect on E inside a capacitor.

EPF 0024 PHY II 50
There will net -ve charge on outer edge of the
dielectric facing +ve plate, and net +ve charge
facing the -ve plate. An electric field is set up
inside the dielectric opposite to original field E0
and reduces it by a factor k say. Net E inside the
dielectric is now E = E0/ k.

Hence the voltage must decreased by a factor

k also, i.e. V = V0/ k , since V = Ed.

EPF 0024 PHY II 51

The charge Q on plates remain constant
(remember capacitor is isolated). Therefore from
Q V0
C and V 
V k
we find (2.17)
Qk A
C  kC0  kε0
V0 d
Implies decrease in E by a factor k will increase C
by the same factor k.

EPF 0024 PHY II 52

Capacitance for parallel plate capacitor with
dielectric between plates is therefore given by
A A
C  k 0   (2.18)
d d
where  = k  0 is called the permittivity of the
material.

k is known as dielectric constant, a factor

indicating by how many fold capacitance is
increased. Table 2.1 shows the dielectric
constants of some substances.
EPF 0024 PHY II 53
Table 2.1: k at 20C for different substances

Material k
Vacuum 1.0000
Air (1 atm) 1.0006
Paraffin 2.2
Rubber, hard 2.8
Vinyl (plastic) 2.8 – 4.5
Paper 3–7
Quartz 4.3
Glass 4–7
Porcelain 6–8
Mica 7
Ethyl alcohol 24
Water 80
EPF 0024 PHY II 54
Example

A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of area

0.0280 m2 and separation 0.550 mm. The space
between the plates is filled with a dielectric of
dielectric constant k. When the capacitor is
connected to a 12.0-V battery, each of the plates
has a charge of magnitude 3.62  10-8C. What is
the value of the dielectric constant k?

EPF 0024 PHY II 55

Solution

First we determine C thus:


Q 3.62 10-8 C
C 

 3.02 10-9 F
V 12.0 V

Next we find k :
A
C  kε0
d

k
Cd

3.02 10 -19 F0.550 10-3 m 
 6.70
 0 A 8.85 10 C /N.m 0.0280 m 
-12 2 2 2

EPF 0024 PHY II 56

 2.8 Storage of Electric Energy
A Charged capacitor stores electric energy equal to work
done to charge it. The voltage V across the capacitor is
directly proportional to the charge q already accumulated
and increases from 0 to V0 linearly as shown in Fig. 2.9.
V (V)
V0

1
2 V0

1
0 2 Q0 Q0 Q (C)
Fig. 2.10: Voltage across a capacitor vs. charge accumulated
EPF 0024 PHY II 57
The average voltage (from Fig. 2.10)

V0 + 0 1
Vav   2 V0 (2.19)
2

The average energy stored in a capacitor

 V0  1
U av  Q0Vav  Q0    2 Q0V0 (2.20)
 2 

EPF 0024 PHY II 58

Dropping the subscript “0” in eq.2.20 and using
U  12 QV and V  Q C

we obtain alternative expressions for energy

stored in a capacitor as
2
Q
U  12 QV  12
C
(2.21)
or

U  12 QV  12 CV 2

EPF 0024 PHY II 59

Energy stored in a capacitor is stored in the
electric field between the plates. Using V=Ed
and C=o (A/d)
1 A
U   Ed   12  0 E Ad
2
2 0
1 2 2
2
CV (2.21)
 d
Ad is volume. Therefore we may define the
energy density u as energy per unit volume:
U
u  12  0 E 2 (2.22)
Ad
and for a Capacitor with dielectric
u  12 E 2  12 k 0 E 2 (2.23)
EPF 0024 PHY II 60
Example 1

What is the potential difference between the

plates of a 3.3-F capacitor that stores
sufficient energy to operate a 75-W light bulb
for one minute.

EPF 0024 PHY II 61

Solution

1
U  CV 2
2
U  Pt
2U 2 Pt
V 
C C


275 W 60 s   52 V
3.3 F

EPF 0024 PHY II 62

Example 2

A parallel-plate capacitor has plates with area of

1.2 cm2 and separation 0.88 mm. The space
between the plates is filled with dielectric of
dielectric constant 2.0. (a) What is the potential
difference between the plates when the charge
on plates is 4.7C (b) Will your answer to part
(a) increase, decrease, or stay the same if the
dielectric constant is increased? Explain. (c)
Calculate the potential difference for the case
where the dielectric constant is 4.0.

EPF 0024 PHY II 63

Solution

Q Qd
(a) V 
C k 0 A


4.7 10 C0.88 10 m  1.9 10 V
-6 -3

2.08.85 10 1.2 10 m 

6
-12 C 2 -4 2
N.m 2

(b) The answer to part (a) will decrease because

V is inversely proportional to k.

V
4.7 10 C0.88 10 m  9.7 10 V
-6 -3

4.08.85 10 1.2 10 m 

4
(c) -12 C2 -4 2
N.m 2

EPF 0024 PHY II By Dr. John Ojur Dennis 64

Example 3

Find the electric energy density between the

plates of a 225-F parallel-plate capacitor.
The potential difference between the plates is
315 V, and the plate separation is 0.200 mm.

EPF 0024 PHY II 65

Solution

1
u  0E2
2
 0V 2

2d 2



8.85  10 -12 Nm
C2
2 315 V 2


2 0.200 10 m -3
2

 11.0 J/m 3

EPF 0024 PHY II 66

2.9 Energy and Power in Current Electricity

Electric Energy can be easily transformed into

other forms of energy.

E.g. Electric motors transform electric energy

into mechanical energy, Heaters transform
electric energy into heat energy, while light
bulbs transform electric energy into light energy.

EPF 0024 PHY II 67

For a small amount of charge Q moved across
a p. d. V, U changes by the amount
U  QV (2.24)
Power P is the time rate of change of energy,
and therefore
U Q V (2.25)
P   IV
t t
SI unit of power is the watt (W).

EPF 0024 PHY II 68

Eq. 2.25 is power transformed by a device
where I is the current passing through it and V
is the potential difference across it

and also gives the power delivered by a

source such as a cell or battery.

EPF 0024 PHY II 69

2.9.1 Alternative expressions for power

Using V = IR, alternative expressions for power

P  IV  I IR   I 2 R (2.26)
Or

V 
2
V
P  IV   V  (2.27)
R R

EPF 0024 PHY II 70

2.9.2 Fire Hazard from Electrical Appliances

Electrical appliances have small resistance. if

the current through electric wires is large, the
wire heats up and produce thermal energy at a
rate which equals to I2R and may start a fire.

To prevent overload, a fuse or circuit breaker is

used. These are switches that open the circuit
when current exceeds some particular value
(Fig 2.10).

EPF 0024 PHY II 71

Fig. 2.10: (a) fuse (b) circuit breaker

(a) Fuses

(b) Circuit breaker

EPF 0024 PHY II 72

 Fig. 2.11: Connection of appliances to fuse

EPF 0024 PHY II 73

Example

Calculate the resistance of 40 W automobile

head-light designed for 12 V.

EPF 0024 PHY II 74

Solution

V 2 12 V 
2
R   3.6 Ω
P 40 W

EPF 0024 PHY II 75

2.9.3 Paying Electrical Bills

Electric bills are paid based on total electric

energy U used. U = P  t. Therefore SI unit for
energy is joule (J) = watt second (Ws).

Larger units such a kilowatt-hour (kWh) may

be used for energy. 1kWh = 1000 W  3600 s
= 3.6 106 Ws = 3.6  106 J.

EPF 0024 PHY II 76

Example 1

An electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 240 V

line. How much power energy does it use and
how much does it cost per month (30 days) if it
operates 3 hours per day and the rate is 10.5
cents per kWh. Assume the current flows
steadily in one direction.

EPF 0024 PHY II 77

Solution

P  IV
U  Pt  IVt
 15 A  240 V 3 h/d  30 d   324 103 Wh  324 kWh

Cost  324 kWh  0.105 $/kWh  $ 34.02

EPF 0024 PHY II 78

Example 2

A 75-W light bulb operates on a p. d. of 95 V.

Find (a) the current in the bulb and (b) the
resistance of the bulb. (c) If this bulb is replaced
with one whose resistance is half the value
found in part (b), is its power rating greater or
less than 75-W? By what factor?

EPF 0024 PHY II 79

 Solution

(a) P 75 W
I   0.79 A
V 95 V

V 2 (95 V)2
(b) R    120 
P 75 W

(c) greater by a factor of 2

EPF 0024 PHY II 80

Example 3

Find the power dissipated in a 25- electric

heater connected to a 120-V outlet.

EPF 0024 PHY II 81

Solution

V2
P
R


120 V 
2
 580 W
25 Ω

EPF 0024 PHY II 82

Example 4

The current in a 120-V reading lamp is 2.3 A.

If the cost of electrical energy is $ 0.075 per
kilowatt-hour, how much does it cost to
operate the light for an hour?

EPF 0024 PHY II 83

Solution

U  Pt  IVt
 2.3 A 120 V 1 hr 
 276 Wh  0.276 kWh

Cost  0.276 kWh 0.075 $ kWh 

 $0.021

EPF 0024 PHY II 84