Chapter 32A – AC Circuits

A PowerPoint Presentation by
Paul E. Tippens, Professor of Physics
Southern Polytechnic State University

© 2007
Objectives: After completing this
module, you should be able to:
• Describe the sinusoidal variation in ac
current and voltage, and calculate their
effective values.
• Write and apply equations for calculating
the inductive and capacitive reactances for
inductors and capacitors in an ac circuit.
• Describe, with diagrams and equations, the
phase relationships for circuits containing
resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
 Objectives (Cont.)
• Write and apply equations for calculating the
impedance, the phase angle, the effective
current, the average power, and the resonant
frequency for a series ac circuit.
• Describe the basic operation of a step-
up and a step-down transformer.

• Write and apply the transformer equation

and determine the efficiency of a
transformer.
 Alternating Currents
An alternating current such as that produced
by a generator has no direction in the sense
that direct current has. The magnitudes vary
sinusoidally with time as given by:

AC-voltage Emax
and current imax
E = Emax sin q time, t
i = imax sin q
 Rotating Vector Description
The coordinate of the emf at any instant is the
value of Emax sin q. Observe for incremental
angles in steps of 450. Same is true for i.

E E = Emax sin q

q 1800 2700 3600

450 900 1350

Radius
R = =Emax
Emax
 Effective AC Current
The average current imax I = imax
in a cycle is zero—
half + and half -.
But energy is expended,
regardless of direction.
So the “root-mean- I2 I
I rms  
square” value is useful. 2 0.707

The rms value Irms is The effective ac current:

sometimes called the
effective current Ieff: ieff = 0.707 imax
 AC Definitions
One effective ampere is that ac current for
which the power is the same as for one
ampere of dc current.
Effective current: ieff = 0.707 imax
One effective volt is that ac voltage that
gives an effective ampere through a
resistance of one ohm.

Effective voltage: Veff = 0.707 Vmax

Example 1: For a particular device, the house
ac voltage is 120-V and the ac current is 10 A.
What are their maximum values?
ieff = 0.707 imax Veff = 0.707 Vmax

ieff 10 A Veff 120V

imax   Vmax  
0.707 0.707 0.707 0.707

imax = 14.14 A Vmax = 170 V

The ac voltage actually varies from +170 V to

-170 V and the current from 14.1 A to –14.1 A.
Pure Resistance in AC Circuits
R Vmax Voltage
A V
imax Current

a.c. Source

Voltage and current are in phase, and Ohm’s

law applies for effective currents and voltages.

Ohm’s law: Veff = ieffR

 AC and Inductors
i
I Inductor I i Inductor
0.63I Current Current
Rise 0.37I Decay

t Time, t t Time, t

The voltage V peaks first, causing rapid rise in i

current which then peaks as the emf goes to zero.
Voltage leads (peaks before) the current by 900.
Voltage and current are out of phase.
 A Pure Inductor in AC Circuit
L Vmax Voltage
A V
imax Current

a.c.

The voltage peaks 900 before the current peaks.

One builds as the other falls and vice versa.

The reactance may be defined as the nonresistive

opposition to the flow of ac current.
 Inductive Reactance
The back emf induced L
by a changing current
A V
provides opposition to
current, called inductive
reactance XL. a.c.
Such losses are temporary, however, since the
current changes direction, periodically re-supplying
energy so that no net power is lost in one cycle.

Inductive reactance XL is a function of both the

inductance and the frequency of the ac current.
Calculating Inductive Reactance
L Inductive Reactance:
A V X L  2 fL Unit is the 

a.c.
Ohm's law: VL  iX L

The voltage reading V in the above circuit at

the instant the ac current is i can be found from
the inductance in H and the frequency in Hz.

VL  i(2 fL) Ohm’s law: VL = ieffXL

Example 2: A coil having an inductance of
0.6 H is connected to a 120-V, 60 Hz ac
source. Neglecting resistance, what is the
effective current through the coil?
Reactance: XL = 2fL L = 0.6 H
XL = 2(60 Hz)(0.6 H) A V

XL = 226 
120 V, 60 Hz

Veff 120V
ieff   ieff = 0.531 A
X L 226 
Show that the peak current is Imax = 0.750 A
 AC and Capacitance
q Capacitor i Capacitor
Qmax I
0.63 I Rise in Current
Charge 0.37 I Decay
t Time, t t Time, t

The voltage V peaks ¼ of a cycle after the

current i reaches its maximum. The voltage lags
the current. Current i and V out of phase.
 A Pure Capacitor in AC Circuit
C Vmax Voltage
A V
imax Current

a.c.

The voltage peaks 900 after the current peaks.

One builds as the other falls and vice versa.

The diminishing current i builds charge on C

which increases the back emf of VC.
 Capacitive Reactance
Energy gains and losses C
are also temporary for
A V
capacitors due to the
constantly changing ac
current. a.c.
No net power is lost in a complete cycle, even
though the capacitor does provide nonresistive
opposition (reactance) to the flow of ac current.

Capacitive reactance XC is affected by both the

capacitance and the frequency of the ac current.
Calculating Inductive Reactance
C Capacitive Reactance:
A 1
V XC  Unit is the 
2 fC
a.c. Ohm's law: VC  iX C

The voltage reading V in the above circuit at

the instant the ac current is i can be found from
the inductance in F and the frequency in Hz.

i
VL  Ohm’s law: VC = ieffXC
2 fL
Example 3: A 2-mF capacitor is connected to
a 120-V, 60 Hz ac source. Neglecting
resistance, what is the effective current
through the coil?
1 C = 2 mF
Reactance: X C 
2 fC A
1 V
XC 
2 (60 Hz)(2 x 10 F)
-6

120 V, 60 Hz
XC = 1330 
Veff 120V
ieff   ieff = 90.5 mA
X C 1330 
Show that the peak current is imax = 128 mA
 Memory Aid for AC Elements
An old, but very “E L i”
effective, way to the
remember the phase “I C E”
differences for inductors man
and capacitors is :

“E L I” the “i C E” Man

Emf E is before current i in inductors L;

Emf E is after current i in capacitors C.
 Frequency and AC Circuits
Resistance R is constant and not affected by f.

1
Inductive reactance XL X L  2 fL XC 
varies directly with 2 fC
frequency as expected
since E  Di/Dt. R, X
XC XL
Capacitive reactance XC varies R
inversely with f since rapid ac
allows little time for charge to
build up on capacitors. f
 Series LRC Circuits
VT Series ac circuit
A
a.c.
L R C

VL VR VC

Consider an inductor L, a capacitor C, and

a resistor R all connected in series with an
ac source. The instantaneous current and
voltages can be measured with meters.
 Phase in a Series AC Circuit
The voltage leads current in an inductor and lags
current in a capacitor. In phase for resistance R.
V V = Vmax sin q
VL
q 1800 2700 3600

VR 450 900 1350

VC

Rotating phasor diagram generates voltage waves

for each element R, L, and C showing phase
relations. Current i is always in phase with VR.
 Phasors and Voltage
At time t = 0, suppose we read VL, VR and VC for an
ac series circuit. What is the source voltage VT?

Source voltage
Phasor
Diagram VT
VL VL - VC
q
VR VR
VC

We handle phase differences by finding the

vector sum of these readings. VT = S Vi. The
angle q is the phase angle for the ac circuit.
 Calculating Total Source Voltage
Source voltage Treating as vectors, we find:

VL - VC VT
VT  VR2  (VL  VC )2
q
VR VL  VC
tan  
VR

Now recall that: VR = iR; VL = iXL; and VC = iVC

Substitution into the above voltage equation gives:

VT  i R2  ( X L  X C )2
 Impedance in an AC Circuit
Impedance
VT  i R2  ( X L  X C )2
XL - XC Z
 Impedance Z is defined:
R
Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2

Ohm’s law for ac current V  iZ VT

or i 
and impedance:
T
Z
The impedance is the combined opposition to ac
current consisting of both resistance and reactance.
Example 3: A 60- resistor, a 0.5 H inductor, and
an 8-mF capacitor are connected in series with a
120-V, 60 Hz ac source. Calculate the impedance
for this circuit.
1 0.5 H
X L  2 fL and X C 
2 fC
A 8 mF
X L  2 (60Hz)(0.6 H) = 226  120 V
1
XC   332 
2 (60Hz)(8 x 10 F)
-6 60 Hz 60 

Z  R2  ( X L  X C )2  (60 )2  (226   332 )2

Thus, the impedance is: Z = 122 

Example 4: Find the effective current and the
phase angle for the previous example.
XL = 226 ; XC = 332 ; R = 60 ; Z = 122 
VT 120 V 0.5 H
ieff  
Z 122 
A 8 mF
ieff = 0.985 A 120 V

Next we find the phase angle: 60 

60 Hz
Impedance
XL – XC = 226 – 332 = -106 
XL - XC Z
 X L  XC
R = 60  tan  
R R
Continued . . .
Example 4 (Cont.): Find the phase angle  for
the previous example.
60 
 XL – XC = 226 – 332 = -106 
-106  X L  XC
Z R = 60  tan  
R

106 
tan    = -60.50
60 

The negative phase angle means that the ac

voltage lags the current by 60.50. This is
known as a capacitive circuit.
 Resonant Frequency
Because inductance causes the voltage to lead
the current and capacitance causes it to lag the
current, they tend to cancel each other out.

XL Resonance (Maximum Power)

XL = XC
occurs when XL = XC
R
XC Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2  R

Resonant fr 2 fL 
1
fr 
1
XL = XC 2 fC 2 LC
 Example 5: Find the resonant frequency for the
previous circuit example: L = .5 H, C = 8 mF
1 Resonance XL = XC
fr 
2 LC 0.5 H
1 A
f 8 mF
2 (0.5H)(8 x 10 F
-6
120 V

Resonant fr = 79.6 Hz ? Hz 60 

At resonant frequency, there is zero reactance (only

resistance) and the circuit has a phase angle of zero.
 Power in an AC Circuit
No power is consumed by inductance or
capacitance. Thus power is a function of the
component of the impedance along resistance:

Impedance In terms of ac voltage:

XL - XC Z P = iV cos 

R In terms of the resistance R:
P lost in R only P = i2R

The fraction Cos  is known as the power factor.

 Example 6: What is the average power loss for
the previous example: V = 120 V,  = -60.50,
i = 90.5 A, and R = 60 .
P = i2R = (0.0905 A)2(60 ) Resonance XL = XC
0.5 H
Average P = 0.491 W
A 8 mF
The power factor is: Cos 60.50 120 V

Cos  = 0.492 or 49.2% ? Hz 60 

The higher the power factor, the more

efficient is the circuit in its use of ac power.
 The Transformer
A transformer is a device that uses induction
and ac current to step voltages up or down.
An ac source of emf Transformer
Ep is connected to
a.c.
primary coil with Np
turns. Secondary has R
Ns turns and emf of
Es. Np Ns

Induced D D
EP   N P ES   N S
emf’s are: Dt Dt
 Transformers (Continued):
Transformer D
EP   N P
a.c. Dt
Np Ns D
ES   N S
R Dt

Recognizing that D/Dt is the same in each coil,

we divide first relation by second and obtain:

The transformer EP N P

equation: ES NS
Example 7: A generator produces 10 A at
600 V. The primary coil in a transformer has
20 turns. How many secondary turns are
needed to step up the voltage to 2400 V?
Applying the I = 10 A; Vp = 600 V
transformer equation:
a.c.
VP NP Np Ns
 20
VS NS turns R
N PVS (20)(2400 V)
NS   NS = 80 turns
VP 600 V

This is a step-up transformer; reversing coils

will make it a step-down transformer.
 Transformer Efficiency
There is no power gain in stepping up the voltage
since voltage is increased by reducing current. In
an ideal transformer with no internal losses:

Ideal Transformer An ideal

a.c. transformer:
Np Ns iP ES
EP iP  ES iS or 
R is EP

The above equation assumes no internal energy

losses due to heat or flux changes. Actual
efficiencies are usually between 90 and 100%.
Example 7: The transformer in Ex. 6 is
connected to a power line whose resistance
is 12 . How much of the power is lost in
the transmission line?
V = 2400 V I = 10 A; Vp = 600 V
S
EP iP 12 
EP iP  ES iS iS  a.c.
ES Np Ns
(600V)(10 A) 20
iS   2.50 A turns R
2400 V

Plost = i2R = (2.50 A)2(12 ) Plost = 75.0 W

Pin = (600 V)(10 A) = 6000 W
%Power Lost = (75 W/6000 W)(100%) = 1.25%
 Summary
Effective current: ieff = 0.707 imax

Effective voltage: Veff = 0.707 Vmax

Inductive Reactance: Capacitive Reactance:

1
X L  2 fL Unit is the  XC  Unit is the 
2 fC
Ohm's law: VL  iX L Ohm's law: VC  iX C
 Summary (Cont.)
VL  VC
VT  V  (VL  VC )
2 2 tan  
R VR

X L  XC
Z  R  ( X L  XC )
2 2 tan  
R

VT 1
VT  iZ or i  fr 
Z 2 LC
 Summary (Cont.)
Power in AC Circuits:
In terms of ac voltage: In terms of the resistance R:
P = iV cos  P = i2R

Transformers:

EP N P
 EPiP  ES iS
ES NS
CONCLUSION: Chapter 32A
AC Circuits