Debre Merkos University

College of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Manufacturing Engineering I
Chapter Four
FUNDAMENTALS OF CASTING
PROCESSES

1
 METAL CASTING PROCESSES
Introduction :
– Casting is a process in which molten metal
flows by gravity or other force into a mold where
it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
• Casting includes both the casting of ingots
and the casting of shapes.
 casting of ingot: associated with the primary
metals industries; it describes a large casting
that is simple in shape and intended for
subsequent reshaping by processes such as
rolling or forging.
 Shape casting involves the production of more
complex geometries that are much closer to the
final desired shape of the part or product.
 METAL CASTING PROCESSES
 As a production process, casting is usually
carried out in a foundry.
 A foundry is a factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling metal in molten form,
performing the casting process, and cleaning the
finished casting.
 The workers who perform the casting operations in
these factories are called foundrymen.
Advantages of Casting
 Casting can be used to create complex part
geometries.
 Some casting processes are capable of producing
parts to net shape. Other casting processes are
near net shape,
 METAL CASTING PROCESSES
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts.
 The casting process can be performed on any metal
that can be heated to the liquid state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass
production.
Disadvantages of Casting
 Limitations on mechanical properties,
 Porosity, poor dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for some casting processes,
 Safety hazards to humans when processing hot
molten metals, and environmental problems.
 Parts made by casting processes range in size
from small components weighing only a few
ounces up to very large products weighing tons.
 Six basic steps of casting
1. Mold cavity is produced having the desired
shape and size of the part
– The mould is made by packing some readily
formed aggregate material, such as moulding
sand, surrounding the pattern.
– When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint
provides the mould cavity. This cavity is filled
with metal to become the casting.
2. Melting process
– Provides molten material at the proper
temperature
3. Pouring technique
– Molten metal is poured into the mold at a proper
rate to ensure that erosion and or defects are
minimized
 Six Basic Steps of Casting
4. Solidification process
– Controlled solidification allows the product to have
desired properties. Mold should be designed so that
shrinkage is controlled
5. Mold removal
•The casting is removed from the
mold
•Single-use molds are broken away
from the casting; Permanent
molds must be designed so that
removal does not damage the part
6. Cleaning, finishing, and
inspection operations
•Excess material along parting
lines may have to be machined
Types and classification of metal casting
 Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is

sacrificed to remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time
to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made
of metal and can be used to make many
castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open
mold
 Molding materials
• A suitable and workable material possessing
high refractoriness in nature can be used for
mold making. Thus, the mold making material
can be metallic or non-metallic.
– For metallic category, the common materials are
cast iron, mild steel and alloy steels.
– In the non-metallic group molding sands, plaster of
paris, graphite, silicon carbide and ceramics are
included.

Figure (a)Open
mold
(b) Closed mold
 Molding materials
• Desirable Mold Properties
– Strength - to maintain shape and resist
erosion
– Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to
pass through voids in sand
– Thermal stability - to resist cracking on
contact with molten metal
– Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the
casting
– Reusability - can sand from broken mold be
reused to make other molds?
 Molding materials
• But, out of all, the molding sand is the
most common utilized non-metallic
molding material because of its certain
inherent properties namely:
– Refractoriness,
– Chemical and thermal stability at higher
temperature,
– High permeability and workability along
with good strength.
– Moreover, it is also highly cheap and easily
available.
 Foundry Sands
The grain size and grain shape are very
important as they define the surface quality of
casting and the major mold parameters such as
strength and permeability:
 Types of Sand Mold
Binders
• Binders are added to give cohesion to molding sands.
• Binders provide strength to the molding sand and enable it
to retain its shape as mold cavity.
• Binders should be added in optimum quantity as they
reduce refractoriness and permeability
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding
clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to
increase strength and/or permeability
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND
Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of
varieties which are described below.
1) Green sand
• very complex
• It is used in the wet condition for making the mould. It is mixture of 80%
silica sand with 10-15 %clay and 6-8% water
• Green sand moulds are not dried and metal is poured in them in the wet
condition
• sand can be easily worked with hand to give it any desired shape
• This sand is used for producing small to medium sized moulds which are
not very complex
• 2) Dry sand
• Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried or baked after
preparing the mould.
• Dry sand gives strength to the mould so that it can be used for
larger castings
3) Loam sand
• Loam sand is one that contains up to 50 % clay which has been worked
to the consistency of builder mortar.
• This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making very heavy castings
usually with the help of sweeps and skeleton patterns.
• 4) Facing sand
• Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mold, gives surface finish
to casting. It is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into
contact molten metal when the mold is poured. Initial coating around the pattern
and hence for mold surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected severest
conditions and must possess, therefore, high strength refractoriness. It is made of
silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand.
• 5) Backing sand
• Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill
the whole volume of the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for
this purpose. The backing sand is sometimes called black sand because that old,
repeatedly used molding sand is black in color due to addition of coal dust and
burning on coming in contact with the molten metal.
• 6) Parting sand
• Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to
stick to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope
and drag to separate without clinging.
• 7) Core sand
• Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand.
This is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which
composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.
 2 3
1

4
5
Figure: 1 green sand, 2 dry sand, 3 loam sand,
4 parting sand, 5 baking sand, 6 system sand

6
 Heating and Pouring
• To perform a casting operation, the metal must
be heated to a temperature somewhat above its
melting point and then poured into the mold
cavity to solidify.
POURING THE MOLTEN METAL
• Introduction of molten metal into the mold,
• For this step to be successful, the metal must
flow into all regions of the mold before
solidifying. Factors affecting the pouring
operation include ;
• pouring temperature, pouring rate, and
turbulence.
 pouring temperature is the temperature of the
molten metal as it is introduced into the mold.
 Heating and Pouring
– Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the
molten metal is poured into the mold.
• If the rate is too slow, the metal will chill and freeze before
filling the cavity.
• If the pouring rate is excessive, turbulence can occur
– Turbulence is characterized by erratic/random
variations in the magnitude and direction of the
velocity throughout the fluid.
• It tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can
become entrapped during solidification, thus degrading the
quality of the casting.
• Turbulence also aggravates mold erosion, the gradual
wearing away of the mold surfaces due to impact of the
flowing molten metal.
 FLUIDITY
• The molten metal flow characteristics are often
described by the term fluidity,
• A measure of the capability of a metal to flow into
and fill the mold before freezing.
– Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity; as viscosity increases,
fluidity decreases.
• Standard testing methods are available to assess
fluidity, including the spiral mold test shown in
Figure.
– A longer cast spiral means greater fluidity of the molten
metal.
• Factors affecting fluidity include
– Pouring temperature relative
to melting Point,
– Metal composition,
– Viscosity of the liquid metal, and
– Heat transfer to the surroundings.
 Solidification and Cooling
The Solidification Process
• After pouring into the mold, the molten
material is allowed to solidify into the final
shape
• Pure Metals solidifies at a constant
temperature equal to its freezing point,
• Most Alloys freeze over a temperature
range rather than at a single temperature.
– As temperature drops, freezing begins at the
temperature indicated by the liquidus and is
completed when the solidus is reached.
 Cooling Curves
• Useful for studying the
solidification process
• Cooling rate is the slop
of the cooling curve
• Solidification can occur
over a range of
temperatures in alloy
• Beginning and end of
solidification are
indicated by changes
in slope
Solidification of an alloy
 Solidification and Cooling
• Two stages of solidification:
• Nucleation:
– Stable particles form from the liquid metal
– Occurs when there is a net release of energy from the liquid
• Grain Growth
– Occurs as the heat of fusion is extracted from the liquid
– Rates of nucleation and growth control the size and shape of
the crystals
– Faster cooling rates generally produce finer grain sizes.
• Final product property that depend of structural
features are formed during solidification
 Shrinkage
• Shrinkage occurs in three
steps:
• (1) Liquid contraction during
cooling prior to solidification;
• (reduced by risering)
• (2) contraction during the
phase change from liquid to
solid, called Solidification
shrinkage;
• (reduced by risering)
• (3) Thermal contraction of
the solidified casting during
cooling to room temperature.
• (reduced by pattern allowance)
 Minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage
directional solidification methods
1. Providing risers : it is desirable for
the regions of the casting most
distant from the liquid metal supply
to freeze first and for solidification to
progress from these remote regions
toward the riser(s).
2. To use chills ;
– Internal chills are small metal parts
placed inside the cavity before pouring so
that the molten metal will solidify first
around these parts.
– The internal chill should have a chemical
composition similar to the metal being
poured,
– External chills are metal inserts in the
walls of the mold cavity that can remove
heat from the molten metal more rapidly
than the surrounding sand in order to
promote solidification
 The Solidification Process
• The total solidification time: is the time
required for the casting to solidify after pouring.
• This time is dependent on the size and shape of the
casting by an empirical relationship known as
Chvorinov’s rule, which states:

• where total solidification time, min; V=volume of

the casting, cm3 (in3); A surface area of the casting,
cm2 (in2); n is an exponent usually taken to have a
value 2; and Cm is the mold constant.
• Chvorinov’s rule indicates that: a casting with a
higher volume-to-surface area ratio will cool and
solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
• This principle is put to use in designing the riser in
a mold.
 RISER DESIGN
• Risers can be designed in different forms, depending on
locations;
– side riser It is attached to the side of the casting by
means of a small channel.
– A top riser is one that is connected to the top surface of
the casting.
• Risers can be open or blind, to the atmosphere.
• An open riser is exposed to the outside at the top
surface of the cope. This has the disadvantage of
allowing more heat to escape, promoting faster
solidification.
• A blind riser is entirely enclosed within the mold,
 RISER DESIGN
• The riser must remain molten until after the
casting solidifies, to compensate for the
volumetric shrinkage of the casting over the total
solidification period.
• Chvorinov’s rule can be used to compute the size of a riser
that will satisfy this requirement.

– Triser = 1.25Tcasting

• Since the geometry of the riser is normally

selected to maximize the V/A ratio,
 RISER DESIGN
• The efficiency, or yield, of a casting is
defined as the weight of the casting divided
by the weight of the total amount of metal
poured.
• Riser size, number, and placement should
be carefully planned to reduce waste while
filling all the shrinkage in the casting.
• Risering aids can be implemented to slow
the cooling of a riser or decrease its size.
– One is using an insulating sleeve, insulating
compound,(such as a refractory ceramic), or an
exothermic mixture,(such as iron oxide
combined with powdered aluminum)
– placing a heater around the riser
Casting Terminology
Casting Terminology
 Casting Terminology
• Pattern- It is the replica of the final object to be
made.
• Core print- is an added projection on the pattern
and it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand
core rests during pouring of the mold

• The mold contains a cavity whose geometry

determines the shape of the cast part.
• Mold cavity- combination of the mold material
and cores.
• Flask- rigid frame that holds the molding
aggregate
 Casting Terminology
• Cope- top half of the pattern
• Drag- bottom half of the pattern
• Parting line- separates the cope and drag
• Core- sand or metal shape that is inserted into
the mold to create openings and various shaped
cavities in the castings. A core is prepared using a
core box.
• Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate
escape of air and gases.
• Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores
inside the mould cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
• Riser- reservoir of molten metal in the cope
• Gating system- network of channels that
delivers the molten metal to the mold
 The gating system
• Gating system distributes molten metal to all parts of
cavity; consists mainly of;
1. Pouring basin
2. Sprue
3. Runner
4. Gate (ingate)
5. Riser

• A good gating design should ensure proper distribution of

molten metal without excessive temperature loss,
turbulence, gas entrapping and slags.
• The main function of the pouring basin is to reduce the
momentum of the liquid flowing into the mould.
• Sprue well (sprue base): dissipate energy and prevent
splashing. Generally first metal contains dross and it can
be trapped in well,–Ceramic filters can also be added.
 The gating system
• Runnner extension: the runner is extended
beyond the ingate so that slag and dross can be
prevented from entering the mold cavity.
• Sprue -tapered down to take into account the gain in
velocity of the metal as it flows down reducing the
air aspiration.
• Choke – smallest CSA in the sprue to regulate metal
flow rate, if it is above, the metal enters the runner
without control (turbulence) .
• Gating ratios: Refers to the proportion of the cross-
sectional area between the sprue, runner and ingates
• Denoted as; sprue area : runner area : ingate area
– Gating ratio of non pressurized gating system is 1:4:4
– Gating ration of pressurized gating system is 1:2:1
 Core
• Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to
pouring.
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between
the mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in the
mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets

Figure (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b)
possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
 The Pattern
• A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the
casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts
much longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and
metal
 Types of Patterns
Figure 3. Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) Solid pattern
(b) Split pattern
(c) Match-plate pattern
(d) Cope and drag pattern
 The Pattern
• Dimentions of the pattern are different from
the final dimensions of the casting required.
– Modifications made to the pattern as compared
to the object are:
1. Addition of pattern allowances
2. Provision of core prints
3. Elimination of fine details
which cannot be obtained by casting
– Can be obtained only by further processing.
• Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction Allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Finish/Machining Allowance
4. Distortion or camber Allowance
5. Rapping allowance
1 Shrinkage or contraction Allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance: provided on
all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it
can be removed from the sand without
tearing away the sides of the sand mold
and without excessive rapping by the
molder.
• Draft allowance varies with the complexity
of the sand job.
• Draft = Vertical dimension x tan(Ɵ)

3. Finish/Machining Allowance: is affected

by the method of molding and casting used.
• Hand molding or machine molding, sand
casting or metal mold casting.
• The amount of machining allowance is also
affected by the size and shape of the
casting, the casting orientation, the metal,
and the degree of accuracy and finish
required.
• 2 to 20 mm
 The Pattern
4. Distortion or camber Allowance : If the casting has the form of
the letter U, V, T, or L etc. or (thin and long sections which are
connected to thick sections) causing the vertical legs to look slightly
inclined outward.
• This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped
pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion
will have its sides vertical .

5. Rapping or Shake Allowance: Before the withdrawal from the sand

mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge
the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal.
• Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the
original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this
increase.
 Other Expendable Mold Processes
• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin
shell of sand held together by thermosetting
resin binder.

Figure . Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag metal

pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed with
thermosetting resin.
 Shell Molding
Figure . Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand
and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell;
(3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away;
 Shell Molding
Figure . Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven
for several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is
stripped from the pattern;
 Shell Molding

Figure . Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold

are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue
removed.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of shell molding:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
– Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not
required
– Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Resin binder is an expensive material.
– Limited for small size.
 Vacuum Molding

• In this process, a sand mold is held

together by vacuum pressure and not by
a chemical binder.
• The term vacuum in this process refers
to the making of the mold, rather than
the casting operation. Casting operation
is same as any other process.
Vacuum Molding
 Vacuum Molding
• Advantages:
• No binders are used and hence sand is
readily recovered in vacuum molding
• Mechanical ramming is not required
• Since no water is mixed with the sand,
moisture related defects are absent from
the product
Disadvantages:
• relatively slow and not readily
adaptable to mechanization
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern
which vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system,
and internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections

Figure. Expanded polystyrene casting process: pattern of

polystyrene is coated with refractory compound;
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Figure . Expanded polystyrene casting
process: (2) foam pattern is
placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern;
Figure . Expanded polystyrene casting
process: (3) molten metal is poured
into the portion of the pattern that
forms the pouring cup and sprue.
As the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead
of the advancing liquid, thus the
resulting mold cavity is filled.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of expanded polystyrene
process:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold
– Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two
mold halves are not required as in a conventional
green-sand mold
• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns
 Expanded Polystyrene
Process
• Applications:
– Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
– Automated and integrated manufacturing systems
are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
 Investment Casting
(Lost Wax Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a
refractory material to make mold, after
which wax is melted away prior to pouring
molten metal
• "Investment" comes from a less familiar
definition of "invest" - "to cover
completely," which refers to coating of
refractory material around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail
 Investment Casting

Figure . Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2)
several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
 Investment Casting

Figure . Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin
layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering the
coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
 Investment Casting

Figure . Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted

position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the
cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal
is poured, and it solidifies
 Investment Casting

Figure . Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away

from the finished casting and the parts are separated from
the sprue
 Plaster Mold Casting
• Similar to sand casting except mold is
made of plaster of Paris
(gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
• In mold-making, plaster and water mixture
is poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
– Wood patterns not generally used due to extended
contact with water
• Plaster mixture readily flows around
pattern, capturing its fine details and good
surface finish
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of plaster mold casting:
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross-sections
• Disadvantages:
– Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which
can cause problems in casting
– Mold strength is lost if over-baked
– Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures,
so limited to lower melting point alloys
 Ceramic Mold Casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is
made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
• Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high-temperature alloys
• Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
• Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar
 2. Permanent Mold Casting
Processes
• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every
casting
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is
reused many times
• The processes include:
– Basic permanent mold casting
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting
 The Basic Permanent Mold
Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two
sections designed for easy, precise
opening and closing
• Molds used for casting lower melting
point alloys are commonly made of steel
or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be
made of refractory material, due to the
very high pouring temperatures
 Permanent Mold Casting

Figure 10. Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated
 Permanent Mold Casting

Figure 10. Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted
and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it
solidifies.
 Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of permanent mold casting:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings are
stronger
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
– High cost of mold
 Applications of Permanent
Mold Casting
• Due to high mold cost, process is best
suited to high volume production and
can be automated accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump
bodies, and certain castings for aircraft
and missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum,
magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast
iron
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity
under high pressure
• Molds in this casting operation are called
dies; hence the name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die
cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mold processes
• Pressure is maintained during
solidification, then mold is opened and part
is removed
 Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close
two mold halves and keep them closed
while liquid metal is forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure
into the die
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour
not uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting-point
metals that do not chemically attack
plunger and other mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and
magnesium
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 13. Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger
withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2) plunger forces
metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated
chamber from external melting container,
and a piston injects metal under high
pressure into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring
step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 14. Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and ram withdrawn,
molten metal is poured into the chamber, (2) ram forces metal to flow into
die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
Die Casting
 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good
refractory qualities) used to die cast
steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part
from die when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities
to prevent sticking
 Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of die casting:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low melting
points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die
 Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the
mold is rotated at high speed so
centrifugal force distributes molten
metal to outer regions of die cavity
• The group includes:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation
commences after pouring rather than
before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape
is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to
radially symmetric forces
 True Centrifugal Casting
Figure 15. Setup for true centrifugal casting.
 Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid
castings rather than tubular parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center
to supply feed metal
• Used only for symmetrically shaped
objects and axis of rotation of the mold
is always vertical.
• The mold cavity is prepared with its
central axis being vertical and
concentric with the axis of rotation.
• Density of metal in final casting is
greater in outer sections than at center
of rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of
casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality is
lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys
 Centrifuge Casting
• A group of Small molds are
arranged in a circle around
the central axis of the flask
and the flask is rotated about
the vertical axis.
• The centrifugal force is used
to obtain higher pressure on
the metal and get more dense
casting. The molten metal
flow in to all the molds under
centrifugal force from a
central feeding sprue.
• Used for smaller parts
• Molds are not symmetrical
about the axis of rotation; the
axis of casting and the axis of
rotation do not coincide with
one another.
 Reading assignment
Furnaces for Casting Processes
• Furnaces most commonly used in
foundries:
– Cupolas
– Direct fuel-fired furnaces
– Crucible furnaces
– Electric-arc furnaces
– Induction furnaces
 Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with
tapping spout near base
• Used only for cast irons
– Although other furnaces are also used, the largest
tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas
• The "charge," consisting of iron, coke,
flux, and possible alloying elements, is
loaded through a charging door located
less than halfway up height of cupola
 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated
by natural gas fuel burners located on side
of furnace
• Furnace roof assists heating action by
reflecting flame down against charge
• At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release
molten metal
• Generally used for nonferrous metals such
as copper-base alloys and aluminum
 Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with
burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired
furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of refractory
material or high-temperature steel alloy
• Used for nonferrous metals such as
bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and
aluminum
• Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out
type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting
 Crucible Furnaces
Figure 19. Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift-out crucible, (b) stationary
pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace.
 Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
• High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be
designed for high melting capacity
• Used primarily for melting steel
 Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop
magnetic field in metal
• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid
metal
• Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can
be closely controlled to produce molten metals of high quality
and purity
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common
applications in foundry work
 Ladles
• Moving molten metal from melting
furnace to mold is sometimes done
using crucibles
• More often, transfer is accomplished by
ladles

Figure 21. Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
two-man ladle.
 Additional Steps After
Solidification
• Trimming
• Removing the core
• Surface cleaning
• Inspection
• Repair, if required
• Heat treatment
 Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers,
parting-line flash, fins, chaplets, and
any other excess metal from the cast
part
• For brittle casting alloys and when cross
sections are relatively small,
appendages can be broken off
• Otherwise, hammering, shearing,
hack-sawing, band-sawing, abrasive
wheel cutting, or various torch cutting
methods are used
 Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
• Most cores are bonded, and they often fall
out of casting as the binder deteriorates
• In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
• In rare cases, cores are removed by
chemically dissolving bonding agent
• Solid cores must be hammered or pressed
out
 Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
• Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting
with coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire
brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling
• Surface cleaning is most important for
sand casting
– In many permanent mold processes, this step can be
avoided
• Defects are possible in casting, and
inspection is needed to detect their
presence
 Inspection
• Non destructive testing often carried out on castings to
check for defects; cracks, pores, internal defects.
– X-ray radiography
– Radiography
– liquid penetrant test
– Magnetic particle
Heat Treatment
• Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties
• Involves various heating and cooling operations to
effect structural changes in a material.
• To achieve the strength and ductility in the finished
product
• Reasons for heat treating a casting:
– For subsequent processing operations such as machining
– To bring out the desired properties for the application of the part in
service
 Casting Quality
• There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product .
• The defects can be classified as follows:
– General defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process
 General Defects: Misrun
• A casting that has solidified before
completely filling mold cavity

Figure 22. Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 General Defects: Cold Shut/Cold lap

• Two portions of metal flow together but there

is a lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 22. Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Figure 22. Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 22. Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow

Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of

mold gases during pouring

Figure 23. Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Figure 23. Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate

into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 23. Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift

A step in cast product at parting line caused by

sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 23. Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

 Product Design
Considerations
• Geometric simplicity:
– Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design usually
improves castability
– Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
• Simplifies mold-making
• Reduces the need for cores
• Improves the strength of the casting
• Corners on the casting:
– Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they
are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot
tearing and cracks
– Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners
and sharp edges should be blended
 Product Design
Considerations
• Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:
– Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and
finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on process:
• Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand casting
• Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die casting
and investment casting
 Reading assignment
Metals for Casting
• Most commercial castings are made of
alloys rather than pure metals
– Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of
product are better
• Casting alloys can be classified as:
– Ferrous
– Nonferrous
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

• Most important of all casting alloys

• Tonnage of cast iron castings is several
times that of all other metals combined
• Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2)
nodular iron, (3) white cast iron, (4)
malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast irons
• Typical pouring temperatures  1400C
(2500F), depending on composition
 Ferrous Casting Alloys:
Steel
• The mechanical properties of steel make it
an attractive engineering material
• The capability to create complex
geometries makes casting an attractive
shaping process
• Difficulties when casting steel:
– Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most
other casting metals  1650C (3000F)
– At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten
metal must be isolated from air
– Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Aluminum
• Generally considered to be very
castable
• Pouring temperatures low due to low
melting temperature of aluminum
– Tm = 660C (1220F)
• Properties:
– Light weight
– Range of strength properties by heat treatment
– Easy to machine
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Copper Alloys
• Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum
bronze
• Properties:
– Corrosion resistance
– Attractive appearance
– Good bearing qualities
• Limitation: high cost of copper
• Applications: pipe fittings, marine
propeller blades, pump components,
ornamental jewelry
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Zinc Alloys
• Highly castable, commonly used in die
casting
• Low melting point – melting point of
zinc Tm = 419C (786F)
• Good fluidity for ease of casting
• Properties:
– Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected
to prolonged high stresses
END OF CHAPTER FOUR