BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

S.ARIVOLI M.TECH., (Ph.D)

ASSITANT PROFESSOR/EEE
SRI SHAKTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY,COIMBATORE.
 AIM
To make students to understand the applications of electronics in diagnostic
and therapeutic area.

OBJECTIVES
To study the methods of recording various bio-potentials

To study how to measure biochemical and various physiological information

To understand the working of units which will help to restore normal functioning

To understand the use of radiation for diagnostic and therapy

To understand the need and technique of electrical safety in Hospitals

UNIT I ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING 9
The origin of Bio-potentials; bio-potential electrodes, biological amplifiers, ECG, EEG,EMG,
PCG, EOG, lead systems and recording methods, typical waveforms and signal characteristics.

UNIT II BIO-CHEMICAL AND NON ELECTRICAL PARAMETER MEASUREMENT 9

PH, PO2, PCO2, PHCO3, Electrophoresis, colorimeter, photometer, Auto analyzer, Blood flow
meter, cardiac output, respiratory measurement, Blood pressure,temperature, pulse, Blood cell
counters.

UNIT III ASSIST DEVICES AND BIO-TELEMETRY 9

Cardiac pacemakers, DC Defibrillator, Telemetry principles, frequency selection, Biotelemetry,
radio-pill and tele-stimulation.

UNIT IV RADIOLOGICAL EQUIPMENTS 9

Ionosing radiation, Diagnostic x-ray equipments, use of Radio Isotope in diagnosis, Radiation
Therapy.

UNIT V RECENT TRENDS IN MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION 9

Thermograph, endoscopy unit, Laser in medicine, Diathermy units, Electrical safety in medical
equipment.
 ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING

Origin of Bio-potentials:
BIO-POTENTIAL ELECTRODES:

1.SURFACE ELECTRODES
2.MICRO ELECTRODE
3.NEEDLE ELECTRODES
Bio-potential Amplifiers
• These are very important part of modern medical instrumentation
• We need to amplify bio-potentials which are generated in the body at
low levels with a high source impedance
• Bio-potentials amplifiers are required to increase signal strength while
maintaining fidelity.

Basic Requirements of Bio-potential Amplifiers

Essential functions of a bio-amplifier are:
• To take a weak bio-potential and increase its amplitude so that it can be
processed, recorded or displayed
• To amplify voltage, but it could be considered as a power amplifier as
well
• To amplify current since in some cases a bio-potential amplifier is used
to isolate the load from the source
ECG

ELECTRODES FOR ECG:

1.LIMB ELECTRODE
2.FLOATING ELECTRODE
3.PREGELLED DISPOSABLE ELECTRODE
4.PASTELESS ELECTRODE
EEG
EMG
 PCG
Phonocardiogram or PCG is a plot of high fidelity recording of the sounds and murmurs made
by the heart with the help of the machine called phonocardiograph.
 EOG
Electrooculography (EOG/E.O.G.) is a technique for measuring the corneo-
retinal standing potential that exists between the front and the back of the human
eye. The resulting signal is called the electrooculogram.

Primary applications are in ophthalmological diagnosis and in recording eye

movements
LEAD SYSTEMS AND RECORDING METHODS
ECG LEADS: 12 LEAD CONFIGURATION(3 Standard Limb Leads (I, II, III),
3 Augmented Limb Leads & 6 Chest leads)

Recording of heart signals is done with ECG Machine

EEG LEADS: 10-20 ELECTRODE SYSTEM
MEASUREMENT OF BRAIN SIGNAL DONE WITH EEG RECORDER
EMG LEADS: NEEDLE ELECTRODE ,MICRO ELECTRODE ARE USED

RECORDING OF MUSCLE SIGNALS DONE WITH EMG RECORDERS

PCG LEADS AND RECORDING:
EOG LEAD AND RECORDING:
 UNIT II: BIO-CHEMICAL AND NON ELECTRICAL PARAMETER MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT OF PH, PO2, PCO2, PHCO3:

Blood Gas Analyzer Measures these Parameters
pH Acid Degree ------ PH Meter
PO2 Partial pressure of oxygen in blood ------ oximeter
PCO2 Partial pressure of carbon dioxide in blood ----Closed chamber
PHCO3
Electrophoresis:
Electrophoresis is a method of moving charged particles through a medium by
using an electric field induced by electrodes. It is also used to separate
molecules with different physical characteristics using electrical charges.

TYPES OF ELECTROPHORESIS:
1.Gel electrophoresis
2.DNA electrophoresis
3.Capillary electrophoresis
4.Protein electrophoresis
Colorimeters:
A colorimeter is an instrument which compares the amount of light getting
through a solution with the amount which can get through a sample of pure solvent.

The essential parts of a colorimeter are:

a light source, which is usually an
ordinary filament lamp
an aperture which can be adjusted
a detector which measures the light which
has passed through the solution
a set of filters in different colors
Photometer:
A photometer, generally, is an instrument that measures light intensity or optical
properties of solutions or surfaces.

Working principle:
Most photometers detect the light with photo resistors, photodiodes or
photomultipliers. To analyze the light, the photometer may measure the light after
it has passed through a filter or through a monochromator for determination at
defined wavelengths or for analysis of the spectral distribution of the light.
Auto analyzer:

An auto analyzer sequentially measures blood chemistry through a

series of steps of

mixing,
reagent reaction and
colorimetric measurements

 Sampler:
 Aspirates samples, standards, wash solutions into the system
 Proportioning pump:
 Mixes samples with the reagents so that proper chemical color
reactions can take place, which are then read by the colorimeter
 Dialyzer:
 The purpose of a dialyzer is to separate the analyte from interfering
substances such as protein, whose large molecules do not go through
the dialysis membrane but go to a separate waste stream
 The analyte infuses through the diaphragm into a separate flow path
going on to further analysis
Blood flow meter: Used to monitor the blood flow in various blood vessels and to
measure cardiac output
PRINCIPLES BASED ON WHICH BLOOD FLOW METERS WORKS:
•Faradays law of induced e.m.f (Electromagnetic Blood flow meter)
•Transit time (Ultrasonic Blood flow meter)
•Doppler effect (Doppler flow meter)
•Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR blood flow meter)
CARDIAC OUTPUT:
Volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute is called cardiac output.
Methods:
1.Fick’s method
2. Thermal Dilution technique
3.Dye Dilution technique
Respiratory measurement:
Three basic measurements
1.Ventillation
2.Distribution
3.Diffusion
Instruments used to measure various volumes
1.Spirometer,
2.Pneumotachometer,
3.Plethysmogram
Tidal volume (TV): volume of air inhaled or exhaled
in one normal breath.

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): maximal amount

of air that can be inhaled following a normal
inhalation.

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): maximal volume

of air that can be exhaled following a normal
exhalation.

Inspiratory Capacity (IC): maximal amount of air a

subject can inhale following a normal exhalation.

Vital capacity (VC): maximal amount of air that a

subject can exhale after a maximal inhalation.
Residual volume (RV): volume of air remaining in lungs after maximal inhalation.
Functional residual capacity (FRC): volume of air left in lungs after a normal exhalation.
Total lung capacity (TLC): total volume of air the lungs can hold.
Blood pressure measurement:
1.Direct method
2.Indirect method
Temperature measurement:

Body temperature is a measure of the body's ability to generate and get rid of heat.
The body is very good at keeping its temperature within a narrow, safe range in spite of large
variations in temperatures outside the body.
When you are too hot, the blood vessels in your skin expand (dilate) to carry the excess heat to
your skin's surface.
You may begin to sweat, and as the sweat evaporates, it helps cool your body.
When you are too cold, your blood vessels narrow (contract) so that blood flow to your skin is
reduced to conserve body heat.
You may start shivering, which is an involuntary, rapid contraction of the muscles.
This extra muscle activity helps generate more heat.
Under normal conditions, this keeps your body temperature within a narrow, safe range.

Thermometers
1.EarThermometers
2.Electronic Thermometers
Temperature measurement:

Body temperature is a measure of the body's ability to generate and get rid of heat.
The body is very good at keeping its temperature within a narrow, safe range in spite of large
variations in temperatures outside the body.
When you are too hot, the blood vessels in your skin expand (dilate) to carry the excess heat to
your skin's surface.
You may begin to sweat, and as the sweat evaporates, it helps cool your body.
When you are too cold, your blood vessels narrow (contract) so that blood flow to your skin is
reduced to conserve body heat.
You may start shivering, which is an involuntary, rapid contraction of the muscles.
This extra muscle activity helps generate more heat.
Under normal conditions, this keeps your body temperature within a narrow, safe range.

Thermometers
1.EarThermometers
2.Electronic Thermometers
PULSE RATE MEASUREMENT:
Pulse, pulse rate or heart rate refer to how many times your heart beats per minute or a
specific unit of time - how many contractions occur in the heart's ventricles
Ways of checking your pulse :
The popliteal artery - behind the knee
The abdominal aorta - over the abdomen
The apex of the heart - can be felt if you place your hand/fingers on your chest
The basilar artery - close to the ear
The brachial artery - inside the elbow or under the biceps
The dorsalis pedis - the middle of dorsum of the foot (the back, or upper surface, of the
foot)
The femoral artery - in the groin
The posterior tibial artery - the ankle joint
The superficial temporal artery - the temple

A chest strap and watch Strapless heart rate monitor

BLOOD CELL COUNTER

Determines the quantity of each type of blood cell : red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets in a sample of blood

to identify persons who may have an infection

to diagnose anemia
to identify acute and chronic illness, bleeding tendencies, and white blood cell disorders such
as leukemia
to monitor treatment for anemia and other blood diseases

•WBCs: 4,500–11,000 per micro liter for women and men, with neutrophils representing
50–70%, lymphocytes 25–35%, mono cytes 4–6%, eosinophils 1–3%, basophils 0.4–1%, and
bands 0–5%.

•RBCs: 4.2–5.0 million per microliter for women; 4.5–6.2 million per microliter for men.

•Hemoglobin: 12–15 g/dL for women; 13.6–17.2 g/dL for men.

•Hematocrit: 35–47% for women; 42–52% for men.

•Platelets: 150,000 and 350,000 per microliter.

 UNIT III :ASSIST DEVICES AND BIO-TELEMETRY

PACEMAKERS
Pacemaker is an electrical pulse generator for starting and/or maintaining the normal
heart beat. The output of the pacemaker is applied either externally to the chest or
internally to the heart muscle. In the case of cardiac stand still, the use of the pacemaker
is temporary - just long enough to start a normal heart rhythm. In cases requiring long
term pacing, the pacemaker is surgically implanted in the body and its electrodes are in
direct contact with the heart.

EXTERNAL PACEMAKER
INTERNAL PACEMAKER
DEFIBRILLATORS:

A defibrillator is an electronic device that creates a sustained myocardial depolarization of a

patient's heart in order to stop ventricular fibrillation or atrial fibrillation.

Ventricular fibrillation is a serious cardiac emergency resulting from asynchronous contraction of

the heart muscles
Different types of defibrillators
There are two types of defibrillators based on the electrodes placement.
i Internal defibrillator
ii. External defibrillator Depending upon the nature of
the voltage applied, the
defibrillators can be divided into
six types.
•A.C. defibrillator
•D.C. defibrillator
•Synchronized D.C. defibrillator
•Square pulse defibrillator
•Double square pulse
defibrillator
Biphasic D.C. defibrillator
TELEMETRY:

Measurement of biological parameters over a distance is known as biotelemetry.

Applications:
(1) Monitoring physiological conditions of astronauts in space, workers in deep
mines.
(2) Monitoring physiological conditions of subjects during exercise or in a normal
working environment.
(3) Monitoring physiological conditions of patients in an ambulance or in a location
away from the hospital.
(4) Remote medical data collection from home or office.
(5) Monitoring animals for research in their natural habitat.
Frequency selection :

The radio frequency biotelemetry uses either the VHF or UHF band set aside by the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) exclusively for the medical telemetry or
the unused television channels.

It is often desired that the frequency and power considerations for the proposed
telemetry system does not affect the existing, nearby telecommunication transmissions.

Amplitude Modulation (AM) and Frequency Modulation (FM) are the most commonly
used analog modulation techniques in the biotelemetry.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) are the most commonly used digital modulation techniques in the
biotelemetry.

While multiplexing many channels of data, the most commonly used multiplexing
method is the Frequency Multiplexing (FM).

Each channel of data is either frequency- or amplitude-modulated using separate sub-

carrier and these sub-carriers are either frequency or amplitude-modulated using a RF
carrier.
Biotelemetry
Physiological parameters adaptable to biotelemetry:
Physiological parameters are classified into two based on adaptability to biotelemetry:
(i) direct bio-potentials such as ECG, EEG & EMG and
(ii) those that require transducer such as temperature & pressure

The components of biotelemetry system:

Radio pill:
One of the earliest biotelemetry units was the endoradiosonde, developed by Mackay and
Jacobson.
The pressure-sensing endoradiosonde is a “radio pill” less than 1 cm3 in volume so that it
can be swallowed by the patient.
As it travels through the gastrointestinal tract, it measures the various pressures it
encounters.
Similar devices have also been built to sense temperature, pH, enzyme activity, and oxygen
tension values by the use of different sensors or transducers.
Pressure is sensed by a variable inductance, whereas temperature is sensed by a temperature-
sensitive transducer.

The pill houses a PCB chip carrier

that acts as a common platform for
attachment of,
•sensors,
•application- specific integrated
circuit (ASIC),
•radio transmitter and
•batteries.
Tele stimulation:
Tele stimulation is a rapidly developing application of clinical medicine where medical
information is transferred through the phone or the Internet and sometimes other networks for the
purpose of consulting, and sometimes remote medical procedures or examinations.
Diagnosis by remote means has been an interesting idea for the medicine.
Remarkable changes in the quality and speed of service, and consequent benefits to the health
centers in terms of reduced costs and better image
Adaptability is added by the fact that if the firmware in the embedded system
Adaptable software agent combined with an adaptable embedded system together comprises
what we call adaptable remote diagnosis system
Web-based access to field equipments
Expert diagnoser is the person who will run a series of tests on the embedded system.
Expert diagnoser will be accessing the central server over the internet
Software agents are programs that will run the diagnostics on the embedded system and
retrieve results
Results are then displayed to the expert diagnoser by the central server
Embedded systems are connected to the central server over a LAN
 UNIT IV RADIOLOGICAL EQUIPMENTS

Ionosing radiation
Diagnostic x-ray equipments
 COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT)
A new method of forming images from X-rays was developed and introduced into clinical use
by British Physicist Godfrey Hounsfield who got Nobel Prize in the year 1979 and is referred as
computerized Axial tomography or computer transmission tomography or computer tomography
(CT).
Working: based on Back Projection Reconstruction
 Use of Radio Isotope in diagnosis

Modern medical care uses the following:

Radiation in the treatment of cancer
Nuclear medicine - the use of radioisotopes in the diagnosis of medical
conditions

Based on the fact that high-energy gamma rays cause damage to biological molecules
Tumor cells are more susceptible than normal cells
Example: cobalt-60
Gamma radiation can cure cancer, but can also cause cancer

The use of isotopes in diagnosis

Tracers - small amounts of radioactive substances used as probes to study
internal organs
Nuclear imaging - medical techniques involving tracers
Example:
Iodine concentrates in the thyroid gland
Using radioactive 131I and 125I will allow the study of how the thyroid
gland is taking in iodine

NMR & MRI SCANNER ARE USED FOR DIAGNOSIS

 Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy (also radiotherapy or radiation oncology, sometimes abbreviated to

XRT) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control
malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical
imaging and diagnosis).

Radiotherapy may be used for curative or adjuvant cancer treatment.

It is used as palliative treatment (where cure is not possible and the aim is for local
disease control or symptomatic relief) or as therapeutic treatment (where the therapy
has survival benefit and it can be curative).
Principles of Radiotherapy
TREATMENT OF TUMOR
1. Delivering of an optimal dose to the
tumor RADICAL RT– complete cure of the patients
–Indications: an early stages (I-II).
2. Minimal damage of surrounding organs &
tissues. PALLIATIVE RT - a temporary
improvement of patients life, life
3. Measures stimulating protective forces of prolongation (stages III- IV).
the body
SYMPTOMATIC RT - to alleviate the most
severe manifestations of the disease
 UNIT V RECENT TRENDS IN MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

Thermograph
Thermography, thermal imaging, or thermal video, is a type of infrared imaging.
Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic
spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14 µm) and produce images of that
radiation.
Endoscopy Unit:
Endoscopy equipment consists of instruments that can look at the inside of many different organs
— these are small, flexible or rigid tubes with a light or lenses on the end that can look into the
esophagus, stomach and colon
Three components:
•An optic system that allows the doctor to look through the scope into the organ or cavity, or to
attach a video camera to the scope
•A fiber optic cable to light up the bodily area
•A lumen (e.g. the bore of a tube, like a needle or catheter) to take tissue samples of the area
being viewed
TYPES OF ENDOSCOPES

1.rigid endoscopes – the majority of which use a convex (curving out, like one half of a
circle) glass lens system, in which the small glass lenses are separated by large air
spaces.
2.flexible endoscopes allow for just that — flexibility. In the animal kingdom, for
example, a flexible endoscope would be perfect for examining the stomach area of a
snake.
Laser in medicine
Diathermy units
Diathermy means "electrically induced heat" and is commonly used for muscle
relaxation.
It is also a method of heating tissue electromagnetically or ultrasonically for
therapeutic purposes in medicine.

TYPES:
SHORT WAVE DIATHERMY
MICRO WAVE DIATHERMY
SURGICAL DIATHERMY
Electrical safety in medical equipment
Electrical safety is very important in hospitals as patients may be undergoing a
diagnostic or treatment procedure where the protective effect of dry skin is reduced.

Also patients may be unattended, unconscious or anaesthetised and may not

respond normally to an electric current.

Further, electrically conductive solutions, such as blood and saline, are often present
in patient treatment areas and may drip or spill on electrical equipment.
•Electric Current
•Leakage Current
•Extension Leads
•Double Adaptors
•Equipment Classification
•Class I
•Class II
•Defibrillator-Proof
•Protective Devices
•Residual Current Devices (RCD)
•Line Isolation overload Monitors (LIMs)
•Equipment Earthing
•Area Classification
•Body Protection Area
•Cardiac Protected Area
•Other Electrical Issues
•Extension Leads
•Double Adapters
•Main Extension Devices
•Power Boards
•Installation of Additional Power Points
TEXT BOOK
1. Leislie Cromwell, “Biomedical instrumentation and
measurement”, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,
2007.
REFERENCES
1. Khandpur, R.S., “Handbook of Biomedical
Instrumentation”, TATA McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2003.
2. Joseph J.Carr and John M.Brown, “Introduction to
Biomedical equipment Technology”, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 2004.