Chapter 2: Matter in the

Liquid Phase
Prepared by: Tristan Alfin C. Ducut, R.N., L.P.T.
Have you ever wondered what makes it possible for the insects or
the leaves to remain on the surface, considering their being more
dense than water?
Section 1
Intermolecular Forces of Matter and Properties of Liquids

1. Surface tension is the force that causes the molecules on the

surface of a liquid to “tighten their hold to one another”, creating
the effect of a thin membrane on the surface. At the liquid’s
surface, the attractive forces are mainly downward and inward.
The molecules occupy the least surface area possible, which pulls
the surface into spherical shape when a small amount is
dropped. Substances with strong attractive forces between the
molecules have high surface tensions. Surface tension is
temperature-dependent; it decreases as the temperature
increases.
2. The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its tendency to resist flowing motion.
Polar molecules and molecules with complex structures (with “branches”) tend to
have higher viscosity, being less able to slip and slide over one another than those
with simple structures and less polarity. For example, cooking oil (with chains of
more than 12 carbons) is more viscous than gasoline (with 7-8 carbons) due to
stronger London dispersion forces; glycerol, with three OH groups, is more viscous
than rubbing alcohol because of more H-bonding.
 A liquid with high viscosity is said to be viscous or simply “thick”. When viscosity
is so high that it cannot flow anymore, the matter is said to be glassy or vitreous.
3. Capillary action, or the spontaneous rising of a liquid in a
narrow tube, is also observed in liquids. This action results from
the cohesive forces (intermolecular forces) within the liquid and
the adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the
container. When the attraction between the liquid and the walls
of the container is greater than the attraction within the liquid
itself, the liquid will rise within the container. This property of
matter in the liquid state explains how plants get nourishment
(water and dissolved minerals) from the soil through their roots
and to all parts.
4. Incompressibility under ordinary conditions is another
property of liquids. Since the molecules in a liquid are already
close, touching one another, they cannot be crowded together
anymore unless they are squeezed and deformed, which would
require a great amount of energy.
5. Diffusibility is much less in a liquid than in a gas, but it takes
place at an easily measured rate. One liquid may diffuse through
another, or a solid may dissolve and diffuse through a liquid. The
particles in a liquid are attracted to one another, but they are not
rigidly held together that they can still move at all times. Thus,
they can slide over one another to affect diffusion.
6. Evaporation is an indication of the escape of molecules from
the surface of the liquid. It is an evidence of molecular motion. A
liquid in an open container eventually evaporates completely.
7. Cooling Effect of Evaporation. The molecules that escape are
the ones with greatest velocity. Therefore, the average velocity
and the average kinetic energy (KE) of the molecules left in the
liquid are reduced as evaporation proceeds. The amount of
energy for the given number of molecules is reduced as well as
their temperature; thus, evaporation always results in a cooling
effect.
8. Vapor Pressure. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container,
the space above the liquid becomes saturated with vapor and an
equilibrium state exists between the liquid and the vapor. At
equilibrium, the molecules in the vapor exert a pressure. The
pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid is
known as the vapor pressure of the liquid. This may be
considered as a measure of the “escaping” tendency of
molecules to go from the liquid to the vapor state.
9. Boiling Point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure
of a liquid is equal to the external pressure (atmospheric
pressure above the liquid). Thus, when the boiling point is given,
the pressure should be stated. When we express the boiling
point without the pressure, it is interpreted to be the normal
boiling point at the standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm
Hg at sea level. The boiling point is one of the most commonly
used physical properties of characterizing and identifying
substances.
 Section 2
Water and Its Properties

The most familiar to all of us is water. Everyone of us sees and uses water in
our everyday life.
Water is so common that we often take it granted. We assume that it is a
typical liquid, but chemical studies show that nearly all of its chemical and
physical properties are unusual compared to other liquids.
Water is a very remarkable substance with its simple composition and
structure. It has unique properties. An evidence of its uniqueness is that it is
the only natural substance that is found in all three phases: liquid, solid
(ice), and gas (steam) at temperatures normally existing in our planet.
 Physical Properties

Pure water is an odorless and tasteless liquid. It has a bluish tint. At standard
atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg or 760 torr), its freezing point is 0◦C
(32 ◦F) and boiling point is 100 ◦C (212 ◦F).
Density. Water at its maximum density at a temperature of 4 ◦C (39 ◦F). It has
an unusual property of contracting in volume as it is cooled to 4 ◦C, and then
expanding when cooled from 4 ◦C to 0 ◦C. It is the only liquid that expands
when it freezes. This makes the density of ice lower than that of liquid water
and that is why ice floats in water.
 Physical Properties

We can imagine ice crystals being formed from intermoleculary H-bonded

water molecules as freezing occurs. The H-bonds keep the molecules in fixed
positions but with spaces in between (open lattice structure), which results
in lower density for solid water (ice) than liquid water.
 Physical Properties

Boiling Point. Water has a relatively high boiling point (100 ◦C at 1 atm),
which indicates its stability. Substances of comparable molar mass like
ammonia and methane are gases at a temperature that water is liquid. If
water were to be similar to other liquids on Earth, it would boil at normal
surface temperatures and thus, exist only as a gas, then we would not have
much needed water in the liquid phase for drinking.
 Physical Properties

Specific Heat. The specific heat of water is higher than any commonly
known liquid except ammonia. This means that water takes much longer
time to heat up and also to cool down than most substances in our
environment. It can absorb a large amount of heat with only a slight change
in temperature. Water temperature fluctuates less than land temperature
such that large bodies of water, like oceans, serve as moderating influences
on the earth’s climate. Water serves as the earth’s thermal regulator,
considering that more than 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water.
 Physical Properties

Solvent Action. Water dissolves more substances than any other common liquid. That
is why it is the most commonly used polar solvent. This property makes water the
most effective liquid for transporting dissolved nutrients, in the bloodstream, and
eliminating wastes from living tissues in our bodies.
This dissolving ability also explains why water is the most important agent in the
erosion of weathered materials on the earth’s surface and why tropical areas are
much more eroded than deserts. Water that runs over and through the surface of the
land dissolves many minerals of the rocks and soil. Unfortunately, this ability is also
the reason why water is easily polluted, stays polluted often, and remains stagnant for
a long time. This simply shows that wherever water flows, either through the ground
or through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals and nutrients.
 Physical Properties

Surface Tension. Water has a high surface tension because of strong intermolecular
H-bonding.
 Composition and Structure of Water

A single water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Each
atom is attached to the oxygen atom by a single covalent bond.
Although the H2O molecule as a whole is electrically neutral, its O-H bonds are polar,
and because of its bent structure, water is a polar molecule. It acts as a dipole, with a
partial positive charge at one end (on the H atoms side) and a partial negative charge
at the other end (on the oxygen atom).
The intermolecular forces acting between the water molecules are the hydrogen
bonds. (A hydrogen bond is actually the dipole-dipole attraction between polar
molecules containing F-H, O-H, or N-H bonds.) Thus, water has two types of bonds: (1)
covalent bonds between H and O atoms within the molecule; and (2) H-bonds
between H and O atoms in different water molecules.
 Chemical Properties

Water is a very stable substance, as shown by its being in the liquid phase at
temperatures found in most places on the earth’s surface and having a relatively high
boiling point of 100 ◦C compared with compounds of similar molecular weights. In
its liquid state, water takes part in many chemical reactions.
1. Water reacts with metals.
2. Water reacts with nonmetals.
3. Water reacts with metallic oxides.
4. Water reacts with nonmetallic oxides.
 Chemical Properties

Hydrates. Water can combine with some salts to form hydrates, which are solids
that contain water molecules as part of their crystalline structure. The water in the
hydrate is called water of crystallization or water of hydration. Hydration follow
the law of definite composition, having a fixed number of water molecules in the
crystalline unit.
 Uses of Water

Industrial Uses. Industries use vast amounts of water. There is a great demand for
water in various processes involved in industrial manufacturing and production.
This demand continuously increases in bulk as industrialization continues with the
increasing population. In manufacturing industries or factories, the use of water
takes place in three ways:
1. Water is part of the product. For example, large amounts of water are used in
manufacturing soft drinks, beer, pastry, and canned foods as well as in the
formulation of drugs, lotions, cleaning agents, etc.
 Uses of Water

2. Water is used in the processing of the product. For example, huge quantities of
water are used in making paper, but the greater part of it does not stay with the
product. Water is used in grinding wood chips, mixing the pulp over a wide screen,
but the water is drained off the screen as the paper moves ahead. Other cases are
in the cleaning of containers like bottles and cans where the manufactured
products are packed.
3. Water is used for cooling the product. For instance, the water may be piped
through a steel mill to absorb heat from the furnace and molten metal.
 Uses of Water

Agricultural Uses. Lands are irrigated by water from rivers, lakes, and artificial
reservoirs, but there are unavoidable need for manmade irrigation and dams or
reservoirs. Dams are used by man to slow down or speed up the flow of water or
to stop its flow altogether.
When dams stop the flow, water is usually stored in a lake or reservoir so that
people can make use of it when needed.
 Uses of Water

Domestic Uses. An adult human being has a minimum daily need of two liters of
water for drinking. This is an obvious requirement, but an equally vital one is the
large volume of water needed to sustain his/her other domestic needs like in
bathing, household cleaning, watering the plants, and laundry purposes.
 Water Supply and Water Quality

The total amount of water on Earth is enormous, though only a small part of it (less
than 1%) is suitable or available for use by humans, plants, and animals. This part
the fresh water in lakes, rivers, and from ground water sources (wells).
Water is a renewable substance. Its total amount remains constant. The hydrologic
cycle assures that water, no matter how often used, will return over and over to
Earth. Water continuously circulates from the oceans to the atmosphere, to the
land and back to the oceans, providing a renewable supply of purified water on
land.
 Water Supply and Water Quality

Geological studies revealed that as part of the cycle, about 425,000 km3 of ocean
water evaporates per year. Most of this precipitates back into the oceans, but
about 40,000 km3 fall on land and provide most of our water supply.
Unfortunately, because of variable climatic and geological conditions , water
supplies are inadequate and dwindling in many parts of the world. Reduced
availability and reliability of supply are observed. Silted rivers and streams,
polluted surface and groundwater supplies, and lakes that are acidified and
biologically dead or prematurely filled by silt and algal growth are evidence of
adverse human impact upon the earth.