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 Introduction and applications

 Electrical Resistivity Method
 Cross-Hole Wave Propagation
Method
 Seismic Refraction Method
 Ground Penetrating Radar

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 7 Geophysical Methods
Introduction and Applications
Geophysical methods of exploration provide a rapid and economical means of supplementing
information obtained by direct exploratory methods such as borings, test pits and trenches from which
samples of soil or rock are retrieved for visual classification and laboratory testing and direct
measurements of the depth to groundwater can be made. The geophysical methods are basically indirect
methods of exploration in which changes in certain physical characteristics such as magnetism, density,
electrical resistivity, elasticity or a combination of these are used as an aid in developing subsurface
information.
Geophysical methods are particularly useful in subsurface exploration for the design of projects. These
methods can be used for establishing the stratification of subsurface materials, the profile of the top of
bedrock, the depth to groundwater, the limits of deposits of potential granular material and organic
deposits, the presence of voids and abandoned underground excavations, the location of buried pipes,
the depths of foundations of existing structures, and the integrity of inaccessible existing foundations.

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7.1 Electrical Resistivity Method
7.1.1 Introduction and Procedure
Each type of soil/rock formation offers its own distinguishing level of resistance when subjected to an
electric current. The resistance offered by soil and rock deposits is highly dependent on the electrolytic
properties of the formation, and thus on the moisture and dissolved salt content of the soil and rock. It
is also affected by the density and void ratio of soils, by temperature variations in soil and rock, by the
porosity of rocks, and by changes in the strata. The resistivity method is particularly useful in locating
gravels deposits within a fine grained soil.
There are a variety methods used to measure the resistivity of soils and rocks. They are basically applied
to determine the depth of various deposits and formations, to identify the location of groundwater table,
to verify the stratification, and to locate the interface of soil and rock or soil and gravel deposits. These
methods generally utilize electrodes placed partially in the soil, in line and equidistant from each other. A
low magnitude current, I, which is in general is a very low frequency alternating current, is passed
through the outer electrodes. The potential drop, V, is read from the inner electrodes. The current and
potential drop are then used to determine the resistivity of soil or rock. (ASTM G 57)

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7.1 Electrical Resistivity Method
7.1.1 Introduction and Procedure

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7.1 Electrical Resistivity Method
7.1.1 Introduction and Procedure

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7.1 Electrical Resistivity Method
7.1.1 Introduction and Procedure

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7.2 Cross-Hole Wave propagation Method
7.2.1 Introduction and Procedure
In this method, the velocity of wave propagation from one borehole to a second borehole is measured.
There are four sources of concern in conducting cross-hole shear tests: the boreholes, the wave
propagation source, the receiver, and the recording and timing equipment. At least two boreholes are
required, a source borehole within which a seismic impulse is generated and a receiver borehole in which
is located a geophone with horizontal and vertical velocity transducers that are used to record
compression and shear waves respectively. Although a minimum of two borehole must always be used,
for extensive investigations and for increased accuracy, whenever possible, three or more boreholes are
preferred. In addition, the boreholes must be as close to vertical as possible to properly measure travel
distance. In general, any borehole 10m or more deep should be surveyed using an inclinometer or
another logging device to determine verticality. (ASTM D 4428)

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7.2 Cross-Hole Wave propagation Method
7.2.1 Introduction and Procedure

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7.3 Seismic Refraction Method
7.3.1 Introduction and Procedure
Seismic refraction techniques are used to measure material velocities, from which are computed depths
to changes in strata. Material types are judged from correlations with velocities. This technique is used to
investigate conditions from the ground surface to depths of approximately 300m. The procedure involves
the use of detectors or geophones on the ground surface, whose spacing is dependent on the amount
of detail required and the depth to strata being investigated. In general, the total spacing between the
outermost detectors must be three to four times the depth being investigated. The geophones are
connected by cable to recording devices, which may be truck-mounted or may be portable units placed
at ground surface. A high speed camera is used to record the time at which the seismic impulse is
generated and the time of arrival of wave front at each geophone. A continuous profile along a line is
obtained by moving the geophones along the line, generating a new impulse from the same source
point each time the geophones are moved. Time-distance graphs are plotted from the obtained data
and the velocity of seismic waves is thus obtained which passes through the soil/rock material under
survey. These velocities are used in standard formulae to determine the depth to the interface between
the layers of materials of differing seismic wave velocity.

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7.3 Seismic Refraction Method
7.3.1 Introduction and Procedure

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7.4 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
7.4.1 Introduction and Procedure
Short impulses of a high-frequency electromagnetic wave are transmitted into the ground using an pair
of transmitting & receiving antennae. The GPR surveys are made by gridding the site and positioning or
pulling the tracking cart across the ground surface. Changes in the dielectric properties of the soil
(i.e., permittivity) reflect relative changes in the subsurface environment. The EM frequency and electrical
conductivity of the ground control the depth of penetration of the GPR survey. Many commercial
systems come with several sets of paired antennas to allow variable depths of exploration, as well as
accommodate different types of ground.
The GPR surveys provide a quick imaging of the subsurface conditions, leaving everything virtually
unchanged and undisturbed. This can be a valuable tool used to define subsoil strata, underground
tanks, buried pipes, cables, as well as to characterize archaeological sites before soil borings, probes, or
excavation operations. It can also be utilized to map reinforcing steel in concrete decks, floors, and walls.
The GPR surveys are particularly successful in deposits of dry sands with depths of penetration up to
20 m or more (60 feet), whereas in wet saturated clays, GPR is limited to shallow depths of only
3 to 6 meters (10 to 20 feet) due to wave scattering issue.

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7.4 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
7.4.1 Introduction and Procedure

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7.4 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
7.4.1 Introduction and Procedure

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7.4 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
7.4.1 Introduction and Procedure

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