BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

CHAPTER # 4
Neurochemistry

CONTENTS
Topic 1. Characteristic of neurotransmitters , neuromodulators and neurons and
neuro Hormones.
Topic 2. Major neurotransmitters, Dopamine, Nor epinephrine, Acetylcholine,
GABA, Glycine peptides(opiates)

Presented by
Imtiaz Hussain (Lecturer)
Department of Applied Psychology Government P/G College Jhang

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 Biological Bases of Behavior

Topic. 1
Characteristic of Neurotransmitters ,
Neuromodulators
and
Neuro Hormones.

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 Neurochemistry
Definition

i. Neurochemistry is a branch of neuroscience that is devoted

to the study of neurochemicals.
ii. Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals, including
neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psycho-
pharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that influence the
function of neurons.
iii. Neurochemistry examines how neurochemicals influence
the operation of neurons, synapses, and neural network
iv. A neurochemical is an organic molecule that participates in
neural activity.
v. This term is often used to refer to neurotransmitters and
other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence
neuron function.

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 Neurotransmitters

Definition of Neurotransmitters: Chemical

released by one neuron that affects another
neuron or an effector organ (e.g., muscle,
gland, blood vessel).

The brain communicates with itself by

transmitting chemicals from one neuron to
the other.

Chemical substances in the presynaptic

neuron’s terminal buttons that diffuse across
the synaptic cleft to transmit a neural
impulse and they influence the receiving
neuron

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 Characteristic of Neurotransmitters
1. 50-100 Neurotransmitters have been identified.
2. Each has its own chemical structure
3. Each can fit into a specific receptor site on the
dendrite of a receiving cell Example: Like a key fitting
into a lock
4. Some act to Excite other neurons (excitatory
synapses) Cause neurons to fire
5. Some act to Inhibit receiving neurons (inhibitory
synapses) Prevent neurons from firing , Very
important!! When we burn our finger and the
burning sensation goes away, it is our inhibitory
synapses
6. Involved in processes ranging from muscle
contraction to emotional responses.
7. Excesses or deficiencies of neurotransmitters have
been linked to psychological disorders such as
Depression and Schizophrenia

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 Excitatory V/S Inhibitory

These neurotransmitter chemicals are classified into two basic categories

Excitatory, meaning they stimulate Inhibitory, meaning they have a more

brain activity, calming effect.

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 Agonists V/S Antagonist
Agonists
i. Chemical substances that mimic or
enhance the effects of a
neurotransmitter on the receptor cites
of the next cell.
ii. An agonist causes an action.
iii. An agonist is a chemical that binds to
a receptor and activates the receptor
to produce a biological response.
iv. Increasing or decreasing the activity of
that cell, depending on what the
effect of the original neurotransmitter
(excitatory or inhibitory) was going to
be
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Antagonist
i. Chemical substances that block or
reduce a cell’s response to the action
of other chemicals or
neurotransmitters (makes original
neurotransmitter do opposite action)
ii. Antagonist blocks the action of
the agonist.
iii. antagonist drug decreases the
effects of the neurotransmitter on
the postsynaptic neuron.
iv. A receptor antagonist is a type of
receptor drug that blocks a biological
response by binding to and blocking
a receptor
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 Biological Bases of Behavior

Topic. 2
Major Neurotransmitters

1. Dopamine
2. Nor-epinephrine
3. Acetylcholine
4. GABA
5. Glycine Peptides(Opiates)

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 1. Dopamine

Dopamine an inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmitter

Involved with voluntary muscles, learning and memory, and
emotional arousal
Levels increase when: – You fall in love giddiness – You get
scared
This chemical also communicates with the front part of your
brain, which is associated with pleasure and reward.

Function
Dopamine controls many functions, including
i. Behavior
ii. Emotion and cognition
iii. Associated with pleasure and reward.
iv. Motivate you to work toward achieving a reward.
v. Movement,
vi. low levels have also been linked to Parkinson’s disease.

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 Dopamine is produced

Dopamine is produced in several

areas of the brain, including the
substantia nigra and the ventral
tegmental area.

It is a neurohormone that is released

by the hypothalamus.

Its action is as a hormone that is an

inhibitor or prolactin release from
the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

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Dopamine Deficiencies
Dopamine Deficiencies
Dopamine Deficiencies are linked to Parkinson’s
disease
People lose control over their muscles have jerky
uncontrollable movements.
Low Levels
Inattentive Distractible, moves from one thing to
another,
Has difficultly Completing a job
Difficulty thinking ahead
Impulsive

Effect of Too much Dopamine

Schizophrenia, People have more receptor sites for
dopamine in an area of the brain that is involved in
emotional responding
Over utilize the dopamine available in the brain
Leads to hallucinations and disturbances of thought
and emotion.
High Levels
Undistracted Works intensely on tasks

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 2. Nor-epinephrine

Norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline (NA)

or noradrenalin, is an organic chemical in
the catecholamine family that functions in
the brain and body as a hormone and
neurotransmitter.

The name "noradrenaline", derived from

Latin roots meaning "alongside the kidneys“

Norepinephrine derived from Greek roots having that

same meaning, is usually preferred. "Norepinephrine" is
also the international nonproprietary name given to
the drug.

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 Nor-epinephrine produced from

Relative to epinephrine, which

is produced and stored
primarily in the adrenal glands,
norepinephrine is stored in
small amounts in adrenal tissue.

Thus, norepinephrine functions

mainly as a neurotransmitter
with some function as a
hormone (being released into
the bloodstream from the
adrenal glands).

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2. Nor-epinephrine continue…

Norepinephrine: This chemical, also called noradrenaline,

can sometimes act as a hormone as well.

It works with the hormone adrenaline to create the

“fight-or-flight” feeling.
Norepinephrine may also be used as a drug to raise or maintain blood pressure in certain
illnesses.

The general function of norepinephrine is to mobilize the brain and body for action.
Norepinephrine release is lowest during sleep, rises during wakefulness, and reaches much
higher levels during situations of stress or danger, in the so-called fight-or-flight response.

In the brain, norepinephrine increases arousal and alertness, promotes vigilance, enhances
formation and retrieval of memory, and focuses attention; it also increases restlessness and
anxiety.

In the rest of the body, norepinephrine increases heart rate and blood pressure, triggers the
release of glucose from energy stores, increases blood flow to skeletal muscle, reduces
blood flow to the gastrointestinal system, and inhibits voiding of the bladder
and gastrointestinal motility.

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3. Acetylcholine (ACh)

Acetylcholine (ACh) (first neurotransmitter to be

discovered) Controls muscle contractions and is
involved in memory formation.

Excitatory (causes receiving neurons to fire) at synapses

between nerves and muscles that involve voluntary
movement.

If it is blocked, Ach can’t get to the site and muscles will

not be capable of contracting.

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 Structure of Acetylcholine (ACh)

Structure of acetylcholine (ACh)

11.2 Acetylcholine in the Autonomic
Nervous System.

In the autonomic nervous

system, acetylcholine (ACh) is the
neurotransmitter in the preganglionic
sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons

Acetylcholine is an organic chemical that

functions in the brain and body of many
types of animals, including humans, as a
neurotransmitter

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 Acetylcholine Deficiencies

i. Acetylcholine – Deficiencies are connected with paralysis

ii. Acetylcholine – Curare A toxin that South American Indians

use on blow darts

iii. Prevents ACh from lodging within receptor sites in neurons;

result is paralysis and often death (can’t breath).

iv. Acetylcholine Prevalent in the Hippocampus Involved in

the formation of memories.

v. If Level of ACh to the brain decreases, memory function will

be impaired.

vi. Alzheimer's Disease, Gradual deterioration in mental

processes such as memory, language, and problem solving

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 4. GABA – Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid

GABA – Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid

i. Inhibitory neurotransmitter Calms people down,
lowers anxiety
ii. Without the inhibitory effect, brain activity is so
accelerated that the person senses an anxiety
overload

GABA and Drugs

i. Alcohol Contains GABA (acts as an agonist for
GABA) This is why people drink to “calm-down” or
“relax”
ii. Xanax or Valium – Strengthen the effects of the
low-levels of GABA

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5. Glycine & Peptides
(Opiates)

Glycine
The amino acid glycine appears to be the inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal
cord and lower portions of the brain.

Little is known about its biosynthetic pathway; there are several possible routes, but
not enough is known to decide how neurons produce glycine.

The bacteria that cause tetanus (lockjaw) release a chemical that prevents the release
of glycine (and GABA as well); the removal of ' inhibitory effect of these synapses
causes muscles to contract continuously. The glycine receptor is iono-tropic, and it.
controls a chloride channel. Thus, when it is active, it produces inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials.

The drug strychnine, an alkaloid found in We seeds of the Sgri-ichnos a tree found in
India, serves as a glycine antagonist.
Strychnine is very toxic, and even relatively small doses cause convulsions and death.
No drugs have yet been found that serve as specific glycine agonists.

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 Peptides
Recent studies have discovered that the neurons of the central nervous system release a large varieties
of peptides.

Peptides consist of two or more amino acids linked together by peptide bola's.

All the peptides that have been studied so far are produced from precursor molecules, These precursors
are large polypeptides that are broken into pieces by special enzymes.

A neuron manufactures both the polypeptides and the enzymes that it needs to break them apart in the
right places.

The appropriate sections are retained_ and the other ones are destroyed. Because the synthesis of
peptides takes place in the soma, vesicles containing these chemicals must be delivered to the terminal
buttons by axoplasmic transport, Peptides are released from all parts of the terminal button,

The rest. presumably act on receptors belonging to other cells in the vicinity. Once released, peptides
are destroyed by enzymes. ‘

There is no mechanism for reuptake and recycling of peptides. Several different peptides are released
by neurons. Although most peptides appear to serve as neuromodulators, some act as
neurotransmitters, One of the best known families of pep is the endogenous opioids.

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 Serotonin

Serotonin Inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmitter.

Function
Involved in emotional arousal and sleep Helps regulate a person’s mood and
appetite

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 Serotonin Deficiencies
Serotonin Deficiencies are linked to:

Overeating,

Insomnia

Alcoholism, Depression,

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 Endorphins

Inhibitory, pain controlling neurotransmitters

Naturally produced in the brain and bloodstream

Lock into receptor sites for chemicals that transmit pain messages to the brain

Once the endorphin “key” is in the “lock”, the pain-causing chemicals are locked
out

Similar to the drug morphine and heroin

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 Neurotransmitters & Their Functions

Dopamine
Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion Oversupply linked to
schizophrenia; undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in
Parkinson’s disease and ADHD
Acetylcholine (ACh).
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory ACh-producing neurons deteriorate
as Alzheimer’s disease progresses
Nor-epinephrine.
Helps control alertness and arousal Undersupply can depress mood and cause
ADHD-like attention problems
GABA Gamma- Amino Butyric Acid.
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and
insomnia

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