FERROUS

METALS/ALLOYS
 Ferrous Metals
Primarily Composed of iron

Common Ferrous Metals

• Alloy Steel
• Carbon Steel
• Cast Iron
• Wrought Iron
 Limitations of Plain Carbon Steel

• Low hardenability.
• Major loss of hardness on tempering.
• Low corrosion and oxidation resistance.
• Low strength at elevated temperatures
 To improve the properties of
steel: elements are alloyed

Alloying Elements
• Chromium • Molybdenum
• Nickel • Tungsten
• Manganese • Vanadium
• Other alloying
elements
 Steels
Plain Carbon Steels- (aka) Plain Carbon and Mild Steel

• composed of Iron and Carbon and other natural

element in iron ore. These steels contain between 0.20-
1.2% carbon and 0.45-0.8% manganese. Maximum Level of Elements:

• Manganese is added to protect it against the harmful Manganese (Mn) = 1.65%

effects of sulphur and phosphorus. Silicon (Si) = 0.60%
• May be cast or wrought. Copper (Cu)= 0.60%
 Types of Steel

Mild Carbon Steel – (aka) Low Carbon Steel or soft steel

Medium Carbon Steel In addition to carbon, these steels

also contain up to 1% manganese,
phosphorus up to 0.5%, and
sulphur up to 3% and silicon up to
High Carbon Steel 0.03%.
 Mild Carbon Steel
(aka) Low Carbon Steel or soft steel

Possesses good formability and weldeability but lacks in

hardness. It is used in making nuts, bolts, sheets, tubes and machine
components not requiring much high strength. It is also used in making
beams and channels.

Carbon Content: 0.15-0.30%

 Medium Carbon Steel
It has higher strength than low carbon steel and is harder due to increased
content of carbon. Its properties can be improved by heat treatment processes and
hence is very popular. It is used for making machine parts such as gears, axles, crank-
shafts and parts for metal working machinery.

Carbon Content: 0.30-0.80%

 High Carbon Steel
It has low toughness and formability but hardness and wear resistance are
high. It is used generally for making parts such as cutting tools, cables, springs,
etc.

Carbon Content: 0.80-1.5%

 Classifications

• Weathering steels
• Control-rolled steels
• Pearlite-reduced steel
• Acicular ferrite steels
• Dual-phase steels
• Microalloyed steels
 Weathering steels
Steels which have better corrosion resistance. A common example is
COR-TEN.
 Control-rolled steels

Hot rolled steels which have a highly deformed austenite structure that will
transform to a very fine equiaxed ferrite structure upon cooling
 Pearlite-reduced steel

Low carbon content steels which lead to little or no pearlite, but rather a very fine
grain ferrite matrix. It is strengthened by precipitation hardening.
 Acicular ferrite steels

These steels are characterized by a very fine high strength acicular ferrite
structure, a very low carbon content, and good hardenability.
 Dual-phase steels

These steels have a ferrite microstructure that

contains small, uniformly distributed sections of
martensite. This microstructure gives the steels a
low yield strength, high rate of work hardening,
and good formability.[1]
 Microalloyed steels

Steels which contain very small additions of niobium, vanadium, and/or

titanium to obtain a refined grain size and/or precipitation hardening.
 Stainless Steels
• Resistant to oxidation and other forms of corrosion. Correctly called
Corrosion-resistant steel (CRES)
• - This property is achieved by alloying them with at least 12wt%
Chromium. The latter forms a stronger bond with oxygen than with
iron and develops a hard protective surface layer of Chromium(III)
Oxide when the steel is subjected to an oxidizing environment.

12wt% chromium does not ensure that the steel will not rust
Classifications of Stainless Steels
As with other steels, stainless may be wrought or cast. Wrought stainless is
grouped by its structure as
• Austensitic
Cast stainless may be classified as heat resistant or
• Ferritic corrosion resistant.
• Martensitic
• Duplex
• Precipitation Hardening (PH).
 Austenitic
Classifications of Stainless Steels

A single-phase solid solution that has good corrosion resistance. The most
popular and weldable of the stainless steels. Can be divided into three groups:
common chromium-nickel (300 series), manganese-chromium-nickel-
nitrogen (200 series) and specialty alloys. Austenitic stainless steels have a face-
centered cubic structure. Though generally very weldable, some grades can be
prone to sensitization of the weld heat-affected zone and weld metal hot
cracking.
 Ferritic
Have low carbon (0.12% or less) content and high chromium content (14%
to 27%) in a solid solution and do not harden by heat treatment. Consists of
iron-chromium alloys with body-centered cubic crystal structures. They can have
good ductility and formability, but high-temperature strengths are relatively poor
when compared to austenitic grades. Some ferritic stainless steels (such as types
409 and 405) used, for example, in mufflers, exhaust systems, kitchen counters
and sinks, cost less than other stainless steels. Other more highly alloyed steels
low in C and N (such as types 444 and 261) are more costly, but are highly
resistant to chlorides.
 Martensitic
High carbon content, up to 1.2% with 12% to 18% chromium. Contain a
balance of C and Ni vs. Cr and Mo; hence, austenite at high temperatures
transforms to martensite at low temperatures. Like ferrite, they also have a body-
centered cubic crystal structure in the hardened condition. The carbon content
of these hardenable steels affects forming and welding. To obtain useful
properties and prevent cracking, the weldable martensitics usually require
preheating and postweld heat treatment.
 Duplex
Primarily used in chemical plants and piping applications, the duplex
stainless steels are developing rapidly today and have a microstructure
of approximately equal amounts of ferrite and austenite. Duplex stainless
steels typically contain approximately 22-25% chromium and 5% nickel with
molybdenum and nitrogen. Although duplex and some austenitic do have
similar alloying elements, duplexes have higher yield strength and greater
stress corrosion cracking resistance to chloride than austenitic stainless steels.
 Precipitation Hardening

Are chromium-nickel stainless steels, which contain alloying additions

such as aluminium, copper or titanium that allow them to be hardened by a
solution and aging heat treatment. They can be either austenitic or martensitic
in the aged condition. Precipitation- hardening stainless steels are grouped into
three types: martensitic, semiaustenitic and austenitic. The martensitic (such as
Type 630) and semiaustenitic (such as Type 631) can provide higher strength
than the austenitic (such as Type 660, also known as A286).
 Alloy Steels
The classification of alloy steel is applied when one or more of the
following maximum limits are exceeded: Mg, 1.65%; Si, 0.60%; Cu, 0.60%; or
through the addition of specified amounts of aluminum (Al), boron (B),
chromium (Cr), Tungsten (W), vanadium (V), zirconium (Zr), or others. Alloy
steels are grouped as low-, medium-, or high-alloy steel with high-alloy steels
encompassing the stainless steel group.
Irons
 Cast Irons
Cast iron usually contain between 2% to 4.5% carbon in addition to
silicon and manganese. Silicon is added to cast, but other requires changes in
properties, which are achieved through heat improve the fluidity of the molten
iron; it also stimulates the formation of graphite and provides corrosion
resistance. Many cast-iron products are used as they are treatment of the cast
parts.
 Gray Cast Iron

• Ideal for engine blocks, gear boxes, machine tools, pistons, cylinders, piston ring,
and manhole covers. It absorbs noise and vibrations, is self-lubricating, and
has excellent corrosion resistance.
• Brittle, least expensive of all metallic materials.
• Contains 3.5% carbon and 2-2.5% silicon.
Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)

With 3.5% carbon and 2.5% Silicon, the addition of small amounts of
Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), Cerium (Ce), Calcium (Ca), Lithium (Li), or other
elements to molten iron will cause tiny balls, or spheriulites, of graphite to precipitate
out. As the name implies, the spheriulitic structure improves the elongation or
ductility while yielding superior tensile strength (150,000 psi or 1034 MPa) and
machinability (similar to gray iron).
 White Cast Iron

• Contains much less silicon (~ 1.2%)

• The carbon composition of analloyed white iron has 0.5% silicon. The
structure is an interstitial compound of carbon and iron known as cementite,
plus a layered two-phase solution of ferrite and cementite known as pearlite.
• Brinell hardness values from over 444 to 712
• Compressive strength above 200,000 psi (1380 MPa)
• Tensile strength around 20,000 psi and good wear resistance.
 Malleable Cast Iron

- Has 2.2% Carbon and 1% Silicon.

- Have two types by varying the heat treatment cycle: Pearlitic malleable and Ferritic malleable
- Pearlitic malleable is strong and hard
- Ferritic malleable is softer, more ductile, and easier to machine.
- In pearlitic malleable iron, 0.3% to 0.9% of the carbon is combined as cementite and allows
for selective hardening of portions of casting.
 Processing
Stainless Steel

Stainless Steel is a metal alloy made up of steel mixed with elements

such as chromium, nickel molybdenum, silicon, aluminum, and carbon.
 Processing
Stainless Steel

Melting and casting

 Raw materials are melted together in an electric furnace for 8-12 hours of
intense heating: melting point 1400-1450 degrees
 The molten steel is cast into semi-finished forms.
Slab
Blooms
Comparison
 Forming
• The semi-finished steel will undergo hot rolling
• Hot Rolling-Steel is heated and passed through huge rolls.
• Blooms and billets are formed into bar and wire
• Slabs are formed into plate, strip, and sheet
 Heat Treatment

• After it was formed it must undergo Annealing.

Annealing-is a heat treatment in which the steel is heated and cooled under
controlled conditions to relieve internal stresses and soften the metal

• Heat Treatment is done for higher strength

 Descaling
Annealing causes a scale or build-up to form on the steel

Processes on removing scale/build up:

• Pickling- use nitric-hydrofluoric acid bath
• Electro cleaning- an electric current is applied to the surface using a
cathode and phosphoric acid.
 Cutting
Cutting operations are usually necessary to obtain the desired
blank shape or size to trim the part to final size

Methods: • Straight shearing • Nibbling

• Circle shearing • Flame Cutting
• Sawing • Plasma Jet Cutting
• Blanking
Straight shearing

shearing using guillotine knives

 Circle shearing

shearing using circular knives horizontally and vertically

 Sawing

using high speed steel blades

 Blanking

uses metal punches and dies to punch out the shape

by shearing
 Nibbling

cutting by blanking out a series of overlapping holes and

is ideally suited for irregular shapes.
 Flame Cutting

involves a flame-fired torch using oxygen and propane in

conjunction with iron powder.
 Plasma Jet Cutting

an ionized gas column in conjunction with an electric arc

through a small orifice makes the cut
 Finishing

A smooth surface as obtained by polishing also provides better corrosion resistance.

Types of finishes Methods:

• Dull Finish • Grinding wheels or abrasive belts
• Bright Finish • Buffing
• Mirror Finish • Tumbling
• Dry Etching (sandblasting)
• Wet Etching
 Dull Finish

• Produced by hot rolling, annealing, and descaling.

 Bright Finish

• Obtained by first hot rolling and then cold rolling on polished rolls.
 Mirror Finish

• is produced by polishing with progressively finer abrasives, followed by

extensive buffing.
Grinding wheels or abrasive
belts
 Buffing
uses cloth wheels in combination with cutting compounds containing
very fine abrasive particles in bar or stick forms
Tumbling
Dry Etching (sandblasting)
Wet Etching
 Manufacturing at the fabricator

After the stainless steel in its various forms are packed and shipped to the fabricator, a
variety of other processes are needed. Further shaping is accomplished using a variety of
methods.
Methods:  Press Prawing
 Roll Forming  Extrusion
 Press Forming
 Forging
Roll Forming
Press Forming
Forging
Press Drawing
Extrusion
 Joining Stainless steel
Variety of methods for joining stainless steel:

• Welding
• Fusion Welding
• Resistance Welding
Welding
 Fusion Welding

• heat is provided by an electric arc struck between an electrode and the metal
to be welded
 Resistance Welding

• Heat is produced by the resistance to the flow of electric current through the
parts to be welded, and pressure is applied by the electrodes.
 Mechanical Properties
Stainless Steel

• Melting point: 1400˚C

• Properties and Characteristics: Hard and tough, resistant to wear and
corrosion
• Principal uses: Cutlery, Kitchen equipment
 Mechanical Properties
List of properties
• Yield and tensile strength
• Ductility
• Hardness
• Toughness
• Fatigue resistance
 YIELD AND TENSILE
STRENGTH
• Nominal room temperature yield strengths (0.2% offset) and tensile
strengths for some annealed austenitic stainless steel are given in Table 1.
 YIELD AND TENSILE
STRENGTH
 Austenitic stainless steels show a marked response to cold working, which
significantly increases both the yield and tensile strengths.

 The degree to which work-hardening affects the strength levels depends on

the chemical composition of the different steels, particularly with regard to
the content of the elements that stabilise the austenitic crystal structure,
especially nickel.
 DUCTILITY
• Annealed austenitic stainless steel has excellent elongation values of typically 50-
60% and higher.
• They therefore possess a superior ability to be cold formed, pressed, drawn and
spun into deep shapes.
• Cold working does bring about a decrease in the ductility.
• Elongation of ± 20% are typical for material which has undergone 30% cold work
– still a very acceptable ductility by normal Engineering standards.
• At sub-zero temperatures the Elongation decreases only slightly, giving a typical
elongation value of 40-50%.
 HARDNESS
• In the annealed condition typical hardness is 150-160 HBN.
• Small amounts of cold work can rapidly increase the hardness up to levels of
± 250 HBN.
• Further cold work results in a slower increase in hardness.
• Spring temper wires and grade 301 cold rolled to full hard temper have
hardness in the order of 340-380 HBN.
 TOUGHNESS
• Annealed austenitic stainless steel has excellent toughness, with Charpy V (room
temperature) typically in excess of 165J. Charpy V values at sub-zero temperatures
do decrease, but even at temperatures as low as 196°C below zero they are typically
between 90J and 120J, i.e. not approaching values that are considered as brittle.
• From the above it may be seen that austenitic stainless steel has exceedingly good
low temperature mechanical properties.
• It is for this reason that they are used virtually exclusively for the manufacture of
vessels to contain liquid gases at cryogenic temperatures.
TOUGHNESS
 FATIGUE RESISTANCE
• If metals are subject to repeated fluctuating (reversing) loads at stresses
below the tensile strength, a fatigue crack can initiate in the material, which
then with increasing cycles of loading propagates until final failure by
fracture occurs.
• The resistance to fatigue at various stress levels is therefore required for
many engineering applications.
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM