EARTH’S

MATERIALS AND
RESOURCES
 EARTH’S MOLTEN STAGE

During the early formation of the Earth it

was molten
During this stage the heavier elements such
as iron and nickel, sank to the deeper
interior of the Earth.
This left a thin layer of lighter materials on
the surface that is now called the crust.
The majority of the Earth’s mass lies below
the crust
 ROCK FORMING
Minerals MINERALS
A mineral is solid inorganic material of the Earth that
has both a known chemical composition and a
crystalline structure that is unique to that mineral
Rocks
A rock is a solid aggregate of one or more minerals that
have been cohesively brought together by a rock-
forming process.
They exhibit the following
characteristics:
• Naturally-occurring
 It is mineral if it has been formed by geologic processes
and no human intervention has taken place.
• Inorganic
 It does not contain any organic compounds and has been
formed by inorganic process.
• Solid
 Exhibit stability at room temperature and that can only
be attained if it is solid.
They exhibit the following
characteristics:
• Crystalline Structure
 They look like crystals since the arrangement of its atom
are ordered and repetitive.
• Can be represented by Chemical Formula
 Most minerals are chemical compounds therefore it can
be represented using a chemical formula that is either
fixed or variable.
• Example:
• Fixed (Quarts – SiO2 ); Variable (Olivine - Mg2SiO4 or Fe2SiO4 )
 MINERALS
• Silicates and Nonsilicates
Silicates – made of silicon and oxygen and make up 92 % of
Earth’s crust.
 Ferromagnesian Silicates
 made of iron, magnesium, and silicates
 Form a basic tetrahederal structure.
 Higher density and darker color than other silicates due to the
presence of iron and magnesium
 Nonferromagnesiam Silicates
 silicates that do not contain either iron or magnesium.
 Lower density and lighter color than the ferromagnesian
silicates.
 MINERALS
Nonsilicates – make up 8% of Earth’s crust
 Carbonates
 Sulfates
 Oxides
 Sulfides
 Halides
 Phosphates
 Hydroxides
 Native elements
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 Color
 A visual measure.
 Not very useful for identification as color of minerals varies
considerably.
 Streak
 This is the color of the mineral when it is finely powdered.
 Rubbed across a piece of tile, leaving a fine powder of the mineral on the
tile.
 Hardness
 Resistance of the material to being scratched.
 Measured using the Mohs hardness scale, which compares the hardness
of the mineral to 10 reference minerals.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

 Crystal form
 Related to the internal geometric arrangement of the atoms that make
up the crystal structure.
 Cleavage
 the tendency of mineral to break along smooth planes.
 Depends upon zones of weakness in the crystal structure.
 Fracture
 The broken surface is irregular and not in a flat plane.
 Luster
 Surface sheen
 Metallic – like metal
 Pearly – like pearl
 Vitreous – like glass
 Earthy
Density – ratio of the mass of a mineral to its volume.
 Specific gravity – ratio of mineral density to the density of water
 Depends on:
 Kind of atoms which make up the mineral
 How the atoms are arranged in the crystal lattice.
 MINERAL-FORMING PROCESSES
Magma
 Molten rock from which minerals are formed
Lava
 Magma that is forced to the surface
 Influences on the mineral forming process
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Time
 Availability and concentration of ions that are in solution
• Minerals Formed at Normal
Temperatures
These form at normal temperatures and
pressures and in contact with atmospheric
gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
water.
There are most of the non-silicates;
carbonates, sulfates, oxides, halides, and
sulfides.
• Altered Minerals
These minerals undergo changes in
chemistry or crystal structure as a
result of pressure, temperature, or
chemical solutions
Similar to minerals that form under
high temperatures with similar
physical properties.
• Ore Minerals
Some minerals are left over after the crystallizing of
magma
These elements are flushed away in hot water solutions as
the magma crystallizes.
Usually crystallize in rock fractures to form thin, flat
bodies of mineral material called veins.
If these minerals have some economic value they are
called ore minerals.
Objectives:

a. Identify and describe the

three basic rock types.
b. Cite examples from each
categories and their uses.
Activity:
 Minerals have been
formed with human-
intervention.

BLUFF
 Mineral contains
organic compounds
and has been formed
by organic processes.

BLUFF
 A mineral should
be solid and
exhibit stability at
room temperature.

FACT
 Minerals look like
crystal since the
arrangement of atoms
are ordered and
repetitive

FACT
 Most minerals are
composed of chemical
compounds therefore
it can be represented
by chemical formula.

FACT
Elements are chemically
combined to form minerals
Minerals are physically combined
to form rocks.
Can a name of mineral be also
used as a rock name?
Lets Rock!

THREE TYPES OF ROCK

What are Rocks?
• A rock is a naturally occurring
solid mixture of one or more
minerals, or organic matter

• Rocks are classified by how they

are formed, their composition,
and texture

• Rocks change over time through

the rock cycle
How can we classify rocks?
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Form from molten rock material
 Intrusive igneous rock
 Formed when magma cools deep within the Earth’s surface
 Cools very slowly as it is in contact with molten rock.
 Large crystal are formed.
 Produces course-grained igneous rock.
 Extrusive igneous rock
 Lava that cools above the Earth’s surface.
 Produces fine-grained igneous rocks.
 This rapid cooling does not allow time for crystals to form.
 Texture may be vesicular (because of the rapid cooling of lava, air
bubbles are trapped inside.
 Uses:
Used in
sport
called
curling

• Granite is a coarse-grained igneous rock composed mostly of

light-colored, light-density, nonferromagnesian minerals. The
earth's continental areas are dominated by granite and by
rocks with the same mineral composition of granite.
 Uses:
used by early
civilizations
for
manufacturing
tools and
ceremonial.

• This is a piece of obsidian, which has the same

chemical composition as the granite. Obsidian has a
different texture because it does not have crystals and
is a volcanic glass. The curved fracture surface is
common in noncrystalline substances such as glass.
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary Rocks
 Form from material from previously existing rock
 Material is provided by weathering of previously existing
rock
 Sediments
 Weathered rock materials
 Dissolved rock materials
 Clastic sediments
 Compacted sediments and is classified by size
 Non- Clastic sediments
 Evaporation and precipitation from solution or compaction of
organic matter.
• Thisis a sample of breccia, a coarse-grained sedimentary
rock with coarse, angular fragments. Compare the grain
sizes to the centimeter scale.
 Use:
building
material.

• This is a sample of sandstone, a sedimentary rock that

formed from sand grains in a matrix of very fine-grained silt,
clay, or other materials. The grains in this sample are mostly
the feldspar and quartz minerals, which probably
accumulated near the granite from which they were eroded.
 Uses:
in construction, in
making lime and
cement.

• Thisis a sample of limestone, a sedimentary rock made of

calcium carbonate that formed under water directly or
indirectly from the actions of plants and animals. This fine-
grained limestone formed indirectly from the remains of tiny
marine organisms.
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Rocks changed by heat, pressure, or hot solutions
due to:
 Movement of the Earth’s crust
 Heat generated by intrusion of hot magma
 Pressure can change rock by flattening, deforming, or
realigning mineral grains.
 Regional Metamorphism
 Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have
undergone considerable amount of mechanical
deformation during orogenic event which are
commonly associated with mountain belts.
 Creates foliated metamorphic rocks
 Ex. Schist, gneiss
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Contact Metamorphism
 Heat and reactive fluids as main factor: occurs when
pre-existing rock gets in contact with magma which
is the source of heat and magmatic fluids where
metamorphic alterations and transformations occur
around the contact.

 Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks

 Ex. hornfels
• Increasingmetamorphic change occurs with increasing
temperatures and pressures. If the melting point is
reached, the change is no longer metamorphic, and
igneous rocks are formed.
 Uses:
Decoration,
building, sculpture,
monuments

• Thisis a sample of marble, a coarse-grained metamorphic

rock with interlocking calcite crystals. The calcite crystals
were recrystallized from limestone during metamorphism.
• Thisbanded
metamorphic rock is
very old; at an age of
3.8 billion years, it is
probably among the
oldest rocks on the
surface of the earth.
 THE ROCK CYCLE

• The
Rock Cycle describes the continually
changing structure of rocks.
Igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock are
just temporary stages in the continuing changes
that all rocks undergo.
How can we apply Igneous
rocks in our lives? How
about Sedimentary and
Metamorphic Rocks?
Be like a Rock!
You may not be the toughest material
on Earth, You may break and fall
sometimes, pressure may trigger your
boiling point, but no one can stop you
to become better, stronger, refined
and a totally new formed one.
 General Classification of
Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
• The U.S. Geological Survey classifies mineral resources into
four major categories:
 Identified: known location, quantity, and quality or
existence known based on direct evidence and measurements.
 Undiscovered: potential supplies that are assumed to exist.
 Reserves: identified resources that can be extracted
profitably.
 Other: undiscovered or identified resources not classified as
reserves
General Classification of
Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
• Examples are
fossil fuels (coal,
oil), metallic
minerals (copper,
iron), and
nonmetallic
minerals (sand,
gravel).

Figure 15-7
 GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
• Deposits of nonrenewable mineral resources in
the earth’s crust vary in their abundance and
distribution.
•A very slow chemical cycle recycles three types of
rock found in the earth’s crust:
 Sedimentary rock (sandstone, limestone).
 Metamorphic rock (slate, marble, quartzite).
 Igneous rock (granite, pumice, basalt).
 Erosion
Transportation

Weathering

Deposition

Igneous rock
Sedimentary Granite,
rock pumice,
Sandstone, basalt
limestone
Heat, pressure

Cooling
Heat, pressure,
Magma
stress
(molten rock)

Melting

Metamorphic rock
Slate, marble,
gneiss, quartzite
Fig. 15-8, p. 343
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
USING MINERAL RESOURCES
• Mineralsare removed through a variety of
methods that vary widely in their costs,
safety factors, and levels of environmental
harm.
•A
variety of methods are used based on
mineral depth.
 Surface mining: shallow deposits are removed.
 Subsurface mining: deep deposits are removed.
 Mining Regulations
• The General Mining Act of 1872 is a United States
federal law that authorizes and governs prospecting
and mining for economic minerals, such as gold,
platinum, and silver, on federal public lands. This law,
approved on May 10, 1872, codified the informal
system of acquiring and protecting mining claims on
public land, formed by prospectors in California and
Nevada from the late 1840s through the 1860s, such as
during the California Gold Rush.
Open-pit Mining

• Machines dig holes

and remove ores,
sand, gravel, and
stone.
• Toxicgroundwater
can accumulate at
the bottom.

Figure 15-
Area Strip Mining

• Earth movers strips

away overburden,
and giant shovels
removes mineral
deposit.
• Often leaves highly
erodible hills of
rubble called spoil
banks.
Figure 15-
Contour Strip Mining
• Used
on hilly or
mountainous terrain.
• Unless the land is
restored, a wall of
dirt is left in front of
a highly erodible
bank called a
highwall.

Figure 15-
Mountaintop Removal
• Machinery removes
the tops of
mountains to
expose coal.
• Theresulting waste
rock and dirt are
dumped into the
streams and valleys
below.

Figure 15-
 Environmental Impacts of Mining

• Acid Mine Drainage

• Erosion and Sedimentation
• Cyanide & Other Toxic Releases
• Dust Emissions
• Habitat Modification
• Surface
and Groundwater
Contamination
 Natural Capital Degradation
Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources

Steps Environmental effects

Mining Disturbed land; mining
accidents; health hazards,
Exploration, mine waste dumping, oil
extraction spills and blowouts; noise;
Processing ugliness; heat

Transportation, Solid wastes; radioactive

material; air, water, and
purification,
soil pollution; noise;
manufacturing safety and health
Use hazards; ugliness; heat

Transportation or Noise; ugliness; thermal

transmission to water pollution; pollution
of air, water, and soil;
individual user, solid and radioactive
eventual use, and wastes; safety and health
discarding hazards; heat

Fig. 15-10, p. 344

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
OF USING MINERAL
RESOURCES

• Theextraction, processing, and use of

mineral resources has a large
environmental impact. Figure 15-9