RESEARCH DESIGN

PREVIEW
• Meaning And Purpose of Research Design
• Criteria of Research Design
• Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Replication
Randomization
Locus Control
• Some Important Types of Research Design
• Between-Groups Design
Two-Randomized-Groups Design
Mote-Than-Two-Randomized-Groups Design
Method-Groups Design Factorial Design
• Within-Groups design
• Comparison of Between-Groups Design and Within-
Groups Design
• Pre-Experimental Design
• True Experimental Design
• Qua.si-Experimental Design
• Ex-Post Facto Design
MEANING AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design is the detailed plan of the

investigation. In fact, it is the blueprint of the
detailed procedures of testing the hypotheses
and analysing the gained data.

The research design, thus, may be defined as the

sequence of those steps taken ahead of time to
ensure that the relevant data will be collected in
a way that peals objective analysis of the
different hypotheses formulated with respect to
the research problems.
Research design serves two serves two
functions.
• First, it answers the research questions as
objectively, validly and economically as it is
possible.

• Second a research design acts as a control-

mechanism. In other words, it enables the
researcher to control unwanted variances. In
any scientific investigation there are three
types of common variances, namely, the
experimental variance, the extraneous
variance and the error variance with which
the researcher is directly concerned
Experimental Variance

Experimental variance is produced in the

dependent variable by the manipulation of the
experimental variables or the independent variables
by the experimenter. Usually, the experimenter or
the researcher wants to maximize the experimental
variances so that he can get as valid and objective
data as are possible.
Extraneous Variance Or Control Variance

Extraneous variance or control variance is

produced by the extraneous variables or the
relevant variables. An experimenter always
tries to control the relevant variables and thus,
also wants to eliminate the variances produced
by these variables. For elimination of
extraneous variance it is essential that the
extraneous variables be properly controlled.
 Error Variance
The third function of a research design is to minimize the
error variance. The error variance is Seined as those
variances or variability's in the measures, which occur as
a function of the factors dot controllable by the
experimenter.

Such factors may be related to the individual differences

among the subjects themselves such as to their attitude,
motivation, need, ability etc., or they may be related to
what is commonly called the errors of measurements
such as the differences in trials, differences in conditions
of experiment, temporary emotional state of the subject,
fatigability, sac Whatever the source of error variance, it
has three distinct features:
1. Error variance is self-compensating because
sometimes the variability is positive and
sometimes the variability is negative.
2. Since error variance is hot!, positive and
negative, it tends to cancel out in several
repeated measurements. Hence, it can be said
that in several repeated measurements the mean
of the error variance will be zero.
3. Error variance is unpredictable probably
because it is based on random errors. In this way,
the error variance is distinct from systematic
variance because the latter is predictable and
based upon systematic errors.
CRITERIA OF RESEARCH DESIGN
As we know research design is data discipline. There are
various types of research designs. Some are weak designs
while some are strong. Behavioural researchers have been
able to formulate certain criteria on the basis of which a weak
research design can readily be distinguished from a strong
research design. These criteria have proved very useful in
guiding the researchers in correct direction. These criteria are
mentioned below.
1. Capability to answer research questions
adequately
2. Control of variables
3. Generalizability A discussion of these research
designs follows.
Capability to Answer Research Questions
Adequately

A good research design is the design that

answers research questions adequately.
Sometimes the researcher setters a design
which is not appropriate for answering the
research question in hand. Such designs
constitute the example of weak research
design.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 Replication
The term 'replication' s really a fusion of two words.
namely. duplication and repetition. If refers to the
desperate repetition clan Aspermont, using a nearly
identical procedure with a different so of subjects, in a
different seeing and a different time. Winner
(1971:391) has similarly said, "A replication of an
excellent Kane independent repetition under as nearly
identical Martian as the nature of the experimental
material will permit). Replication permits a person in
revalidating a previous study or raises some questions
about ME previous studies Thus, replication provides
a very accurate estimate oldie experimental error, that
can be used as a basic unit of measurement in
evaluating die significance of the observed differences.
 Rendomization
Rendomization is the second basic principle of the
experimental design. It makes the test valid. How?
As we know that each statistical test used in an
operimentai situation depends upon some
assumptions of which de most frequent and the
conman assumption is that the observations should
be independent.
 Local Control
By local control is meant the amount of balancing,
blocking and grouping of the subjects or the
experimental units employed in the experimental
design. Thus local control is, in a way, regarded as a
part of the entire edifice of the experimental design.
These three terms, namely, "balancing", "blocking"
and "grouping" need further explanation. The term
grouping is most easy to define. It refers to the
assignment of homogeneous subjects or experimental
units into a group so that different groups of
homogeneous subjects may be available for
differential experimental treatments.
SOME IMPORTANT TYPES
OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 Between-Groups Design
Two-Randomized-Groups Design
A two randomized-groups design is so called because
here the subjects are randomly assigned to two groups
only In formulating this type of design the
experimenter, first, defines the independent variable
and the dependent variables. Subsequently, he selects
two values of the independent variable. These two
values may also be called as "conditions' or "treatments'
of the experiment. His main interest is to examine
whether or not these two conditions affect the
dependent variable in a differential way. In selecting a
sample for the proposed experiment he defines the
population.
 More-Than- Two-Randomized-Groups Design

Because of some limitations of the two-randomized-

groups design, it is being used in a restricted was and
more emphasis is being given to the more-than-two-
randomized-groups design. Such design is also
known as the multi-groups design. Ac its name
implies, in such a design there are three or more
conditions or values of the independent variable and
accordingly, three or more groups of subjects
participate in the experiment.
 Matched-Groups Design
Like the randomized-groups design, the matched
groups design (also known as the randomized- groups
design) may be two-matched-Groups design. , or a
two-matched-Groups or a more-than-two-matched-
groups whatever the type, in the matched-groups
design all subjects are first tested on a common task or
a protest measure (also called the matching variable)
and then, they are formed into groups (as many as
needed for the experiment) on the basis of the
performance of the common task or the matching
variable. The groups thus formed are said to be
equivalent groups.
Factorial Design
1. Two or more independent variables are
manipulated in all possible combinations.
2. For a design to be called factorial, different
subgroups or subjects must serve under every
possible combination of the independent
variable. As far as possible an equal number of
design. An in all subgroups is preferred,
although this is not essential condition for a
factorial design. An equal number of subjects is
preferred because it given facilitation in the
statistical computations.
3. The factorial design enables the experimenter to
study the independent effect as well as the
interactive effect of the two or more independent
variable.
 Factorial Design with TWO Independent Variables
The type of factorial design that we have discussed
above is one in which there are two independent
variables, each having two levels. Hence, it was
referred to as a 2 x 2 factorial design. likewise, a
factorial design with two independent variables may
be of a 3 x 2, 3 x 3, 4 x 3, 4 x 4, etc., type. In this way a
generalized factorial design for two independent
variables may be written as K x L factorial design in
which K stands for the first independent variable and
L stands for the second independent variable. The
value of K and L indicates the number of ways in
which the first and the second independent variables
have been manipulated.
 Statistical Analysis in x 2 factorial Design

The statistic that is frequently applied to any

factorial design is the Analysis of variance
(ANOVA), which was originally developed by Sir R
A Fisher. Let us assume that the experimenter got
the data (fictitious) shown in Table 19.8 from the
learning experiment described above. The table
shows the number of trials taken by each subject in
learning a list of 15 consonant syllables with the
criterion of one perfect recitation. The method of
serial learning was followed by the experimenter.
 Within-groups Design

This is also called repeated-treatments design

because the same individuals are treated
differently at different times and we compare
their scores as a result of different experimental
treatments. Let us illustrate this design with an
example.
 Comparison of Within-groups Design
And Between-groups Design
As we have discussed in detail both the within-
groups design as well as the between-groups design,
we are in a Positron to matte a design as well as the
between-groups comparative evaluation of the two
designs.
1. In a within-groups design the same group is
used under all experimental conditions whereas
in a between-groups design a separate group
serves under each experimental condition.
2. Since the experimenter repeats the measures on
the same group of subjects in within-groups
design, the factor of individual difference is
automatically controlled.
3. If the experimental situation is such in which
preparation for the experiment requires a fair
amount of time and patience (mostly true in the
case of neuropsychological and
psychophysiological experiments).
4. There are some experiments in which the within-
groups design should not be used.
 Experimental Design based upon the
Campbell And Classification
Apart from the experimental desighs (excluding
factorial design) discussed above, campbell &
Stanley (1963) have discussed 16 designs
reanging from the poorest to very strong ones,
which have proved very useful in psychological
and educational researches.
 Pre-experimental designs (Non-designs)

There are designs, which actually do not

qualify for the experimental designs because
they do not provide a control group or the
equivalent of a control group.
 Static-group comparison (or intact-
group comparison)

In this design two group are taken. One

group (O1) experiences the experiences
treatment (x) and another group does not
experience the experimental treatment (O2)
 True experimental designs
There are three experimental designs.
Winch are called tree twain, designs. In
these designs the control group and the
experimental groups are formed and their
equivalence is established through
randomization.
 Posttest only, Equivalent-group Design
This design is the most effective and useful
true experimental design, which minimizes
the threats to the experimental validity. The
design can be diagrammed as shown below:

R X O1

R O2
 Solomon Four-Group Design
The Solomon four-group design developed by
Solomon (1949) is really a combination of the two
equivalent-groups design described above, namely ,
the posttest-only design and pretest-postted design
and represents the first direct attempt to control the
threats of the external validity. The design can be
diagrammed as shown below:
R O1 X O1
R O3 O4
R X O5
R O2
 Quasi-Experimental Designs
Quasi-experimental designs are partly like true
experimental designs. They control some but not all
extraneous variables, which give threats to the
internal validity of the experiment. The quasi-
experimental designs provide control over when and
whom the measurement is applied but as subjects are
not randomly assigned to the experimental and the
control group, the equivalent* of the groups is not
maintained, and thus, it leaves some uncontrolled
threats (or validity of the experiment. Such designs
are better than pre-experimental designs, although
they are not as adequate as the true experimental
designs.
 Time-Series Design
Sometimes it happens that a control group or a
comparison group cannot be included in an
experiment because of the situation in which
the experiment is being conducted. Still, the
experimenter wants to have a design, which
may exercise a better control over the
extraneous variables. The time-series design is
one such design, which can be followed in the
situation described above.
 Equivalent Time-Samples Design
The Equivalent Time-Samples Design is an
extension of the time-series design with the
repeated introduction of the treatment or the
experimental variable.

Non –Equivalent Control Group Design

In psychological and educational research often

the experimenter is faced with a situation in
which he has work with intact group (that is,
groups whose membership is prefixed and cannot
be altered by the experimenter).
 Counterbalanced Design
IN counterbalance designs the experimental
control is achieved by achieved by randomly
applying experimental treatments.

Separate-Sample Pretest-Posttest Design

The separate-sample pretest-pottest design is

specially suited to those situation in which
the experimenter cannot assign treatments to
all subjects at a time.
 Patched-up Design

In a patched-up design the experimenter starts

with an inadequate design and then, adds
some features so that recurrent factors
producing invalidity may be maximally
controlled.
 Ex post facto design

In ex post fecto research, it can be said that the

experimenter instead of creating a treatment evaluates
the effects of a naturalistically occurring treatment
after that treatment has occurred.
There are two common types of ex post facto design,
namely, correlational design and criterion-group
design.
 Correlational Design

A Correlational approach (also know as

the psychometric approach) is one in
which the experimenter collects two or
more sets of data from from the same
group of subject so that the relationship
between the two subsequent sets of data
can be determined.
 Criterion-group Design

In the criterion-group design, as its name implies,

the experimenter tries to ascertain what has
caused the particular state of condition by
contrasting the characteristics of the group which
possesses the criterion behaviour with those who
do not.
 Steps in Experimentation
When the problem has been selected, the experimenter
plans to conduct an experiment.

1. Label the experiment

2. Review of the literature
3. Formulation of the problem
4. Formulation of the hypothesis and
defining the variable
5. Preliminaries and apparatus
6. Control of extraneous variables
7. Design of the experiment
8. Selection of subjects
9. Procedure of the experiment
10.Statistical treatment
11.Preparation of the discussion report
12.Generalization of the obtained
findings