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LESSON NO. 2
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you shall be able to:
Network Cables
Cat 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6, ..
DSL wiring at home
Coaxial cable
Coaxial Lines
• Two conductors are
concentric,
separated by an
insulating dielectric
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/coax_chart.htm
WAVEGUIDES are hollow metal tubes used to transfer energy from one point to another. The
energy travels slower in a waveguide than in free space.
Striplines
• Micro Stripline
• Embedded Stripline
• Coplanar Stripline
• Loss
– Metallic
• Skin depth
• Localized current flow
– Dielectric
• Loss tangent
– Surface roughness
Microstrip line
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
& PARAMETERS
LENGTH OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
• A transmission line is considered to be
electrically short when its physical length is short
compared to a quarter-wavelength ¼ of the
energy it is to carry.
Example:
TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC
(TEM)
Transmission Lines 23
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL MODEL
An equivalent circuit of a transmission line can be
developed by considering a pair of straight wires of equal
size; this line is known as the parallel wire line.
Since the wires are of uniform size , the RESISTANCE of
the conducting material of which the wires are made may
be assumed to be uniformly distributed along their lengths.
The magnetic field links the wires and hence an
INDUCTANCE is said to be present .This is distributed
uniformly along the length of the line. Since this inductance
impedes the current flow , it is effectively in series with
the uniformly distributed resistance .
CONSTANTS are inductance, capacitance and resistance that are
distributed along the transmission line.
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL MODEL
The fact that the input and output currents are different
suggest the possibility of an ADMITTANCE between the
wires .
The presence of CAPACITANCE is because the line
consists of two conductors separated by air-dielectric.
Because the dielectric is not perfect , a conduction current
will flow between the wires.
This property is called CONDUCTANCE (G) and is the opposite
of resistance. Conductance in transmission lines is expressed as
the reciprocal of resistance and is usually given in micro mhos
per unit length.
The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an
infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing
an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:
1. The distributed resistance R of the conductors - series
resistor (Ω per unit length).
2. The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field
around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) - series inductor
(H per unit length).
3. The capacitance C between the two conductors- shunt
capacitor C (F per unit length).
4. The conductance G of the dielectric material separating
the two conductors - shunt resistor between the signal
wire and the return wire (S per unit length).
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
Lumped Element Model for a Transmission Line
A short segment Δx of transmission line can be modeled as a
lumped-element circuit.
DRIVING AN INFINITE TRANSMISSION LINE.
Voltage applied between two conductors creates an electric field between those
conductors. Energy is stored in this electric field, and this storage of energy results in an
opposition to change in voltage.
Equivalent circuit showing stray capacitance and inductance.
• Since the wires are infinitely long, their distributed capacitance will never fully charge
to the source voltage, and their distributed inductance will never allow unlimited
charging current.
• This pair of wires will draw current from the source so long as the switch is closed,
behaving as a constant load.
• No longer are the wires merely conductors of electrical current and carriers of
voltage, but now constitute a circuit component in themselves, with unique
characteristics.
• No longer are the two wires merely a pair of conductors, but rather a transmission
line.
Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit
35
Equivalent electrical circuits
simple model consisting of distributed inductors and capacitors.
Unbalanced line
Balanced line
LUMPED CONSTANTS are theoretical properties (inductance,
resistance, and capacitance) of a transmission line that are lumped into a
single component.
The Lossy Transmission Line Model
In the lossy transmission line model, the series
resistance and dielectric conductance are introduced
into the equivalent circuit model.
The Lossless Transmission Line Model
In the lossless transmission line model, only the
distributed capacitance (C) and inductance (L) of the
interconnect is considered:
R jωL
Z0 G jωC
Ohm (Ω)
Characteristic Impedance of a Line
• The characteristic impedance depends upon the electrical
properties of the line, according to the formula:
R j ωL
Z0 G j ωC
(Ω)
Transmission Lines 41
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN THE TRANSMISSION LINE
Transmission Lines 44
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE (Z0)
is also known as natural impedance
2 0
C
ln( D / d )
0
L ln( D / d )
2
R jL L 138
Z0 log( D / d )
G jC C
1
Vp
LC
• Loss
– Frequency dependent f
– Skin depth
– TEM mode
– Unbalanced
Coaxial cable
Transmission Lines 56
Transmission Lines 57
Parallel Lines
Transmission Lines 58
Characteristic Impedance
PARALLEL LINE
Transmission Lines
Example:
ˆL 0 ln �b � 4 �
10 -7
�6 �
� � ln � � 0.14 H m
2 �a � 2 �3 �
2 2 �
8.854 �10 -12
Cˆ 0
80 pF m
ln ( b a ) ln ( 6 3)
The velocity of propagation is:
1 1
v 3�
108 m s
ˆˆ
LC 10-6 �
0.14 � 10-12
80 �
The characteristic impedance of the cable is:
Zc � ˆ Cˆ
L 0.14 10-6 80 10-12 42
Problem:
A transmission line of length l connects a load to a sinusoidal voltage source
with frequency f . Assuming the velocity of wave propagation on the line is c, for
which of the following situations is it reasonable to ignore the presence of the
transmission line in the solution of the circuit:
(a) l = 20 cm, f= 20 kHz, (b) l = 50 km, f= 60 Hz, (c) l = 20 cm, f= 600 MHz,
(d) l = 1 mm, f =100 GHz.
Transmission Line Equations
in a time varying signals (AC)
(Complex Variables)
An equivalent circuit model with the the basic symbol
for a transmission line of length L divided it into small
segments:
Transmission Lines 65
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS:
• The line voltage V(x) and the current I(x) can be expressed in the
frequency domain as
z z
(z) z
z
• When the elements R and G are negligibly small the transmission line is
considered as a lossless structure.
• For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state
Telegrapher's equations are:
z
(z)
(z) (z)
z (z)
Using ordinary circuit theory, the relationship between the
voltage and current on the left and right side of the transmission
line segment can be derived:
Transmission Lines 67
Taking the limit as dz goes to zero, we end up with a set of
differential equations that relates the voltage and current on
an infinitesimal section of transmission line:
Transmission Lines 68
These equations are known as the telegraphers equations.
Manipulation of these equations in phasor form allow for
second order wave equations to be made for both V and I:
Transmission Lines 69
• If R and G are not neglected, the equations become:
• Where:
Transmission Lines 71
Characteristic Impedance - Z0
Transmission Lines 72
Distortionless Line: This type of line may contain
loss (so that the voltage dies off somewhat as it
propagates down the line)
Transmission Lines 73
The Propagation Constant:
The propagation constant shows up in the solution for the
spatial variation of the voltage and current waves along the
line. The real part Ƴ is given by ; this represents the rate of
decay of the wave as it travels down the transmission line.
Transmission Lines 75
Impedance on a Lossless Line
• The impedance on a lossless transmission line is
given by the formula:
Z L cos θ jZ 0 sin θ
Z Z0
Z 0 cos θ jZ L sin θ
Where ẞ is the phase shift constant:
Transmission Lines 77
Characteristic Impedance of a Line
• A terminated transmission line that is matched in its
characteristic impedance is called a matched line.
• The characteristic impedance depends upon the electrical
properties of the line, according to the formula:
R j ωL
Z0 G j ωC
Ω
a.
b.
Problem 2:
Calculate the impedance looking into a 50Ω line 1 m long, terminated in
a load impedance of 100Ω. If the line has a velocity factor of 0.8 and
operates at a frequency of 30 MHz.
Solution :
To calculate for the impedance looking into a 50Ω line 1 m long, terminated in a
load impedance of 100Ω, if the line has a velocity factor of 0.8 and operates at a
frequency of 30 MHz, is as follows:
Zin
Zin
Zin
Zin
Zin
Zin
Zin
Zin
Rectangular coordinates are in the Polar coordinates are in the form:
form (x,y), where 'x' and 'y' are the (r,q), where 'r' is the distance from
horizontal and vertical distances the origin to the point, and 'q' is the
from the origin: angle measured from the positive
'x' axis to the point:
Transmission Lines 83
Polar to Rectangular
From the diagram above, these formulas convert polar coordinates
to rectangular coordinates:
x = r cos q, y = r sin q
So the polar point: (r,q) can be converted to rectangular coordinates
like this:
( r cos q, r sin q ) ð ( x, y )
Example: A point has polar coordinates: (5, 30º). Convert to
rectangular coordinates.
Solution: (x, y) = (5 cos 30º, 5 sin 30º) = (4.3301, 2.5)
Transmission Lines 84
2. Rectangular to Polar
Again, from the diagram above, these formulas convert
rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates:
By the rule of Pythagoras:
Tan q = y/x , so therefore: q = tan-1( y/x )
So the rectangular point: (x,y) can be converted to polar
coordinates like this:
( , tan-1( y/x ) ) ð ( r , q )
Example: A point has rectangular coordinates: (3, 4). Convert
to polar coordinates.
Solution: r = square root of (3² + 4²) = 5, q = tan-1(4/3) =
53.13º
so (r,q) = (5, 53.13º)
Transmission Lines 85
Transmission line Input, Output Impedances
A coaxial line with inner and outer diameter of 0.5 cm and 1 cm, respectively,
is filled with an insulating material with Ƹr = 4.5 and ơ = 10-3 S/m. The
conductors are made of copper. Calculate the line parameters at 1 GHz.
Transmission Lines 95
Problems (Set 1)
3. A 50m ohms lossless transmission line is terminated in a 100 ohms load and is
excited by a 30 MHz source of internal resistance of 50 ohms. What should be
the length of a transmission line for maximum power transfer?
Transmission Lines 96
Set 2
Transmission Lines 97
Transmission Line Propagation Parameters
Complex Propagation Constant – ϒ
Wave velocity or Phase velocity - V
Reflection Coefficient - Г
Transmission Lines 98
Complex Propagation Constant - ϒ
The wave velocity or phase velocity and wavelength are given by:
A RESONANT line has STANDING WAVES of
current and voltage and is of finite length and is
not terminated in its characteristic impedance.
REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE
RESONANT LINES
RESONANT LINES
RESONANT LINES
• Whenever the termination on a transmission line is NOT EQUAL TO Z0, there are
reflections on the line.
TERMINATION IN Z0
As illustrated in the figure (next slide), view A, the curve, provided there are
no losses in the line, will be a straight line. If there are losses in the line, the
amplitude of the voltage and current will diminish as they move down the line
(view B). The losses are due to dc resistance in the line itself.
Effects of various terminations on standing waves.
Note: Other text use the beta symbol for reflection coefficient.
VSWR
VSWR: The ratio of the high voltage points to the low voltage
points is called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR).
• Reflection
Refer to
slide 55
The perfect condition of no reflection occurs only when the load is purely
resistive and equal to Zo. Such a condition is called a flat line and indicates a
VSWR of 1. If the load is a known value of pure resistance, the VSWR can be
determined by the following equation:
Power loss
Solution:
a)
b)