BLOCK DIAGRAM OF STATIC RELAY

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 Advantages of Static Relay
The static relay consumes very less power because of which the
burden on the measuring instruments decreases and their accuracy
increases.

The static relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability and
accuracy and it is shockproof.

The reset time of the relay is very less.

It does not have any thermal storage problems.

The relay amplifies the input signal which increases their sensitivity.

The chance of unwanted tripping is less in this relay.

The static relay can easily operate in earthquake-prone areas

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because they have high resistance to shock.
 Limitations of Static Relay
The components used by the static relay are very sensitive to the
electrostatic discharges. The electrostatic discharges mean sudden
flows of electrons between the charged objects. Thus special
maintenance is provided to the components so that it does not
affect by the electrostatic discharges.

The relay is easily affected by the high voltage surges. Thus,

precaution should be taken for avoiding the damages through
voltage spikes.

The working of the relay depends on the electrical components.

The relay has less overloading capacity.

The static relay is more costly as compared to the electromagnetic

relay.
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 Types of Relays
The electrical protective relay can be broad, classified into two
categories
(i) Electromagnetic Relay and

(ii) Static Relay.

According to the principle of operation and construction, the relay

may be classified such as the electromagnetic attraction type,
electromagnetic induction type, electrodynamic type, moving coil
type, electro-thermal type, physics electric type, and static relays.

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The construction of the relay is easily affected by the surrounding
interference.

For integrated protection and monitoring systems programmable

microprocessor controlled static relays are preferred.

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Differential Relay – The relays operate when some specified phase or
magnitude difference between two or more electrical quantities
occurs.

Distance Relay – In this relay operation depends on the ratio of the

voltage to the current.

According to timing characteristic, the relays can be divided into the

following classes.

Instantaneous Relays – These relays employed after a small time

duration from the incidence of the current or other quantity resulting
in operation. The times require for the operation of such relays is less
than 0.2 seconds.

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Definite Time Lag Relays – In these relays, the time of operation is
sensibly independent of the magnitude of the current or other
quantity causing operation.

Inverse Time Lag Relays – In this relay, the magnitude of the current
or other quantity causing operation is inversely equal to the time
requires for the operation.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Lag Relays – In these relays the

time of operation is approximately equal to the lesser values of
current or other quantity like voltage, frequency, etc., causing
operation and tends to be a specific minimum time as the value rises
without limit.

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 Comparator

Comparator is a part of static relay, which receives two or more

inputs (voltage/current/phase angle) to be compared and gives
output based on the comparison.

Types of Comparator

The various types of comparators are;

Amplitude Comparator

Phase Comparator

Hybrid Comparator
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 comparator

• The magnitude of voltage & current and phase angle

between them may change when a fault occurs.
• Static relay senses the change in these parameters to
differentiate between healthy and faulty conditions.
• This is achieved by comparing either the magnitudes of
voltage & current or the phase angle between them.
• The circuitry which performs this function is called
comparator.
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 Amplitude Comparator
An amplitude comparator compares the magnitude of two or more
input quantities irrespective of the angle between them.

One of the inputs is the operating quantity and the other a restraining
quantity. When the amplitude of the operating quantity exceeds that
of restraining quantity, the relay sends a tripping signal to the circuit
breaker.

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The Amplitude comparator compares two vector, |A| and |B|
- Gives an output: the algebraic difference between the
magnitudes |A| and |B|
- Output is +ve, if |A| > |B|
- Output is –ve, if |A| < |B|
- Output is zero, if |A| = |B|

Comparison by ratio:
- Output is >1, if |A| > |B|
- Output <1, if |A| < |B|
- Output is Zero, if |A| is zero.
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 Amplitude comparator types

Integrating comparator
Instantaneous comparator
Sampling Comparator

Integrating Comparator

Circulating Current Type

Opposed Voltage Type

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 Circulating Current Type

It can also be used as impedance relay. Two rectifier bridges can be

arranged in such a manner to compare the circulating from the bridges.

The polarized relay operates when S1>S2 where S1=K1i1 and S2 = K2i2. This
arrangement gives a sensitive relay whose voltage may be represented
in the VI characteristic of the figure. 15
 Opposed Voltage type

This type works with voltage input signals derived from PTs. The
operation depends on the difference of the average rectified
voltage (V1-V2).Here the rectifiers are not protected against higher
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currents. The relay operates when V1 >V2.
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Instantaneous Comparator (Directing Amplitude
Comparator) – Averaging Type

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Here the restraining signal is rectified and smoothed completely in
order to provide a level restraint.
Restraining signal is then compared with the peak value of
operating signal, which may or may not be rectified but is
smoothened.
The tripping signal is provided if the operating signal exceeds the
level of the restraint.
Since this method involves smoothening, the operation is slow.

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A faster method is phase splitting the wave shapes of instantaneous
amplitude comparator are shown in fig. Before rectification the
averaging circuit can be eliminated.

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 Phase Comparator
• Period of coincidence of +ve polarity of 2 signals are
compared with a reference angle. (usually 90 degree)
• If the 2 signals have a phase difference of ɸ, then the
angle of coincidence ψ = 180 - ɸ.
• If ɸ < 900, then ψ > 900. The phase comparator may be
designed to trip the C.B, when ψ > 900.
• The period of coincidence is measured by different
techniques.

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 Phase Comparator

Phase comparison technique is the most widely used one for all
practical directional, distance, differential and carrier relays.

If the two input signals are S1 and S2 the output occurs when the
inputs have phase relationship lying within the specified limits.

Both the input must exist for an output to occur. The operation is
independent of their magnitudes and is dependent only on
their phase relationship.

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The figures below show the phase comparator. The function is
defined by the boundary of marginal operation and represented by
the straight lines from the origin of the S-plane.

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The condition of operation is β1 < θ < β2.

θ is the angle by which S2 lands S1. If β1 = β2 =90o, the comparator is

called cosine comparator and if β1=0 and β2=180o, it is a sine
comparator.

In short, a phase comparator compares two input quantities in

phase angle (vertically) irrespective of the magnitude and operates
if the phase angle between them is < 90o.

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 Types of Phase Comparator
• 1.2.1 Vector product P.C
a) Hall effect P.C
b) Magneto-resistivity P.C
• 1.2.2 Coincidence type P.C
a) Block spike P.C
b) Phase-splitting type P.C
c) Integrating type P.C
d) Rectifier bridge type P.C 26
Vector Product comparator

This comparator recognizes the vector product or division between the

two or more quantities. Thus, the output is A, B or A/B
Coincidence Comparator

Consider two signals S1 and S2. The period of Coincidence of S1 and

S2 will depend on the phase difference between S1 and S2. The fig
below shows the coincidence of S1 and S2when S2 lags S1 by less than
π/2 ie., θ.

The period of coincidence of S1 and S2 with a phase difference of θ is
Ψ = 180o – θ. Different techniques are used to measure the period of
coincidence. Two of the important types are

1. Bloke Spike Method (Direct Phase Comparison) and

2. Coincidence type – Integrating phase comparator. 27

 Block and Spike Phase Comparator
• In this method, one of the two input signals is converted
into a square wave and the other is converted into a spike
during its peak.
• Square wave and spike are given to an AND gate whose
output is 1 when both square wave and spike are
coinciding.
• Coincidence will happen only when the angle between the
input signals are less than 900 which indicates a fault.
• Output of AND gate is used to trip the C.B

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 b) Phase Splitting Comparator
• In this method, two phase shifted (+/-45 0) components

are obtained for each of the input signals.

• These 4 components are fed into an AND gate.

• Output will be 1 if all 4 signals are positive at a time.

This happens only during a faulty condition.

• Output of AND gate is used to trip the C.B

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 Hybrid Comparator

This kind of comparator compares both magnitude and phase of the input quantities.
Hence this type is of mixed version.

In the hybrid comparator, both amplitude and phase comparators are used. Inputs are
given to a phase comparator. The output of the phase comparator is given to
amplitude comparator.

Static impedance relays comparing V and I are generally of Hybrid Comparator.

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Level Detector
Level detector determines the level of its input with reference to a
predetermined setting.

When input I exceed the level (L) and the output (O) of the level
detector exceeds and the output stage of the relay gets a triggering
signal via an amplifier

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 General Equation for Comparators
Let us first derive the general threshold equation assuming that
there are two input signals S1and S2 such that when the phase
relationship or magnitude relationship fulfills pre-determined
threshold conditions, tripping is initiated.
The input signals are derived from the system through instrument
transformers (CTs and/or PTs). In case the two quantities to be
compared are different (i.e., voltage and current), some form of
mixing device, such as current voltage transactor, is required.

Let the two input signals be represented as

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Where, A and B are the primary system quantities, K1 and K3 are the

scalar numbers and |K2|and | K4| are the complex numbers with

angles θ2 and θ4 respectively.

Taking A as the reference phasor and phasor B to lag A by an angle

ɸ. Then the above equation can be rewritten as –

S1 = K1 |A| + |K2||B| {cos (θ2 – ɸ) + j sin (θ2 – ɸ)}

and S2 = K3|A| + |K4||B| {cos (θ4 – ɸ) + j sin (θ4 – ɸ } … (3.2)

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 Analysis for Amplitude Comparator:
If the operating criterion is given by |S1| > |S2| then at the threshold
of operation

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Analysis for Phase Comparator:
The two quantities to be compared are S1 and S2. Let the phase

angles of S1 and S2 with respect to a reference axis be α and β

respectively.
The relay operates when the product of S1and S2 is positive. The

product of S1 and S2 is maximum when they are in phase and the

threshold condition i.e., positive torque will be obtained when α – β
= ± 90° or ± /2 radians.
Under this condition tan (α – β) = ± ∞
or tan α – tan β/1 + tan α tan β
or 1 + tan α tan β = 0
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Substituting for tan α and tan β from phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.1

Dividing the above equation by |K2||K4| |A|2 cos (θ2 – θ4), we have
–

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In most of the relays, at least one of the constants K1, K2, K3 and K4 is
zero and two of them are often equal.
Also the angle of the two phasor constants is usually the same. This
makes the practical case relatively simple.
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If θ2 = θ4, the values of r and c in the two cases are tabulated
below:

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Duality between Amplitude and Phase Comparators:
It can be shown with the help of phasor diagrams that an inherent
amplitude comparator becomes a phase comparator and vice-versa
if the input quantities to the comparator are changed to the sum
and difference of the original two input quantities.
Consider the operation of an amplitude comparator with input
signals S1 and S2 such that it operates when |S1| > |S2|.

If the inputs are changed to |S1 + S2| and |S1 – S2| so that it operates

when |S1 + S2| > |S1 – S2|.

If these quantities are fed to an amplitude comparator, the
comparator essentially compares the phase relation between S1 and
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It is observed that the requirement |S1 + S2| < |S1 – S2| puts a

condition on the phase relation between S1 and S2 i.e. unless the

phase difference between original phasors S1 and S2 exceeds 90°, |

S1 + S2| cannot be less than |S1 – S2|.

So the original amplitude comparator with inputs now |S1 + S2|

and |S1 – S2| is a phase comparator i.e., a converted phase

comparator.

It is to be noted that the phase comparator in case of static

circuits is a cosine comparator as opposed to a sine comparator in
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The amplitude comparison using a phase comparator is explained
with the help of phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.5.

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From the phasor diagram it is clear that if the original inputs S 1 and

S2 to the phase comparator are with such a phase relation that they

will operate the relay and if now the inputs are changed to |S1 + S2|

and |S1 – S2| and supplied to the same comparator, the comparator

essentially compares the amplitude relation between S 1 and S2.

Unless |S1| > |S2|, the phase relation between |S1 + S2| and |S1 – S2|

will not be less than 90° and hence the phase comparator with inputs

|S1 + S2| and |S1 – S2| will now be an amplitude comparator. 48

Though a given relay characteristic can be obtained using either of

the two comparators, consideration of the constants computed for

required characteristics would indicate which type of comparator is

preferable. In general an inherent comparator is better than the

converted type because if one quantity is very large in comparison

with the other, a small error in the larger quantity may cause an

incorrect comparison when their sum and difference are fed as

inputs to the relay.

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 Definite Time Overcurrent Relays

TC = RCloge [V / (V-VT)]

The operating time of overcurrent relays are constant irrespective of the level of the fault
current. In this case, an intentional time delay is introduced through a timing circuit. The
figure below shows that the simplified block diagram of a definite time overcurrent relay.
The input current signal derived from the main CT is converted to a proportional voltage
signal by the input transformer and then rectified, filtered and compared with the preset
threshold value of the level detector (1). If the voltage exceeds the preset threshold value,
the level detector gives an output voltage, thereby the charging of the capacitor C of the RC
timing circuit starts. As soon as the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the
preset threshold value (VT) of level detector (2), a signal through the amplifier is given and
time setting, respectively.

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 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

The block schematic diagram of the static instantaneous Overcurrent relay is shown in the
figure. The current derived from the CT is fed to the input transformer which gives a
proportional output voltage. The input transformer has an air gap in the iron core to give
linearity in the current / voltage relationship up to the highest value of current expected and
is provided with tapping on its secondary winding to obtain different current settings. The
output voltage of the transformer is rectified through a rectifier and then filtered at a single
stage to avoid undesirable time delay in filtering, so as to ensure high speed of operation. A
limit made of a zener diode is also incorporated in the circuit to limit the rectified voltage to
safe values even when the input current is very high under fault conditions. A fixed portion of
the rectified and filtered voltage (through a potential divider) is compared against a preset
pick-up value by a level detector and if it exceeds the pick-up value, a signal through an
amplifier is given to the output which issues the trip signal. The output device may either be
a static thyristor circuit or an electromagnetic slave relay.

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Where V is the voltage applied to the capacitor. If V, R and C are constant, the charging
time for a given value of VT will be constant. The time TC can be varied by varying R-C
combinations and VT. In this case, since the capacitor charging is done from a fixed d.c.
output, voltage of level detector (1), the operating time of the relay for particular values
of R and C of the timing circuit and VT of the level detector (2) will be constant for
different values of the fault current.

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Overvoltage, Overcurrent, and Overpower Relay – The relay operates when the voltage,
current or power arises above a specified value.
Undervoltage, Undercurrent, and Underpower Relay – The relays operate when the
voltage, current or power falls below a specified value.
Directional or Reverse Current Relay – The relay operates when the applied current
assumes a specified phase shift on the supply voltage and the relay is compensated for
the fall in voltage.
Directional or Reverse Power Relay – The relay operates when the applied voltage and
current assumed specified space displacement and no compensation is allowed for fall in
voltage.

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Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay

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The block diagram of the inverse-time overcurrent relay is shown in the figure. The
current signal is converted to a proportional voltage signal by the input transformer and
then rectified, filtered and compared with a reference voltage of the level detector (1) set
by the potentiometer P1. Under normal conditions i.e., when the input current is low
switch S1 is ON, short circuiting the capacitor C of the RC timing circuit and switch S2 is
OFF. As soon as the input voltage exceeds the preset reference voltage of the level
detector (1), switch S1 is switched OFF and switch S2 is switched ON and the charging of
capacitor C of the timing circuits starts from a voltage proportional to the current.
Switches S1 and S2 are made of static components. When the voltage across the capacitor
C of the timing circuit exceeds the reference voltage of the level detector (2) as set by
potentiometer P3, a signal is given to the output device through an amplifier. Finally, the
output device issues the trip signal. Here the plug setting multiplier is given by the
transformer secondary tap and potentiometer P1 and the time multiplier setting is
determined by potentiometers P2 and P3.

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Hardware Architecture of Numerical Relay

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A digital relay consists of

 Analog input subsystem

 Digital input subsystem

 Digital output subsystem

 A processor along with RAM (data scratch pad),

 main memory (historical data file) and power supply.

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 Numerical distance relay
features
Distance Protection – several schemes Overcurrent Protection (directional/non-
including user definable directional)

Several Setting Groups for protection values Switch-on-to-Fault Protection

Power Swing Blocking Voltage Transformer Supervision

Negative Sequence Current Protection Undervoltage Protection

Overvoltage Protection CB Fail Protection

Fault Location CT/VT Supervision
Autoreclose Check Synchronisation
CB State Monitoring CB Condition Monitoring
Broken Conductor Detection User-Definable Logic
Fault/Event/Disturbance recorder Measurement of Power System Quantities
(Current, Voltage, etc.)
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 Advantages of numerical relays over static
relays
Several setting groups Wider range of parameter adjustment

Communications built in (serial, Ethernet, Internal Fault diagnosis

teleprotection, etc.)

Power system measurements available Distance to fault locator

Disturbance recorder Auxiliary protection functions (broken

conductor, negative sequence, etc.)

CB monitoring (state, condition) User-definable logic

Backup protection functions in-built Consistency of operation times – reduced

grading margin
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