BIOLOGY I

TMS 0224
CHAPTER 1
CELL AS A UNIT OF LIFE

Mdm. Nurasyikin binti Abd. Rahman

CONTENTS

1.1 Cell Theory

1.2 Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells

1.3 Structures Plants And Animal Cells

1.4 Specialized Cells/Tissues

After studying this topic, students should be able to :

1. Describe the cell as the smallest independent unit of life and form the basis of
living organism
2. Describe and compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
3. Illustrates the detailed structures of typical plant and animal cells
4. Compare plant and animal cells
5. Describe the following types of specialized cells:
i) plants - meristem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and
phloem
ii) animals - epithelial cell, nerve cell, muscle cells (smooth, striated and
cardiac muscle cell), bone, cartilage and blood (connective tissues)
6. Describes how cells are grouped into tissues and organs
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

INTRODUCTION

• 1) Cell is the basic structure and function of living organism.

• The cell has a special place as the lowest level of organisation
that can perform all activities required of life.
• All cells are made up of the same blueprint. All cells have the
same chemical components. All cells carry out the same
metabolic activities, the same way of replication, protein
synthesis and respiration. Therefore there is a basic unity/
similarity in life.
• The organizational hierarchy in life shows how simple structures
combined to produce a more complex structure in a higher
hierarchy.

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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

INTRODUCTION

• Atoms ~ Molecules ~ Organelles ~ Cell ~ Tissue ~ Organ ~ System

~ Organism ~ Population ~ Community ~ Biosphere
• Every level is more complex than the previous one.
• Biological structures and functions are similar and are
correlated between different types and level of life.

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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

INTRODUCTION

2) Living organisms have an open and dynamic system and they

interact with the environment continuously.
• This open and dynamic system integrates all parts of the living
organisms and is regulated by systems such as the feedback
mechanisms.
• The interaction between all species and their environment takes
place via the exchange of matter and energy between them.

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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

INTRODUCTION

3) Continuity in life is based on the biological information that

can be passed on from one generation to another in the form
of DNA and RNA
• biological information is kept in the form of genes on
chromosomes located in the nucleus.
• this information will be replicated before.it is passed to the
offspring and it will be used to determine the characteristics of
the organism.

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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

1.1 Cell Theory

• Schleidan and Schwann (1838-39) proposed the first two tenets;

• All organisms are composed of one or more cells
• The cell is the basic organizational unit of life. All biochemical
reactions occur in cells
• Rudolf Virchow (1855) proposed the third tenet;
c) All cells arises from preexisting cells
• The modern cell theory adds another idea;
• d) Cells contain hereditary material of an organism that can be
passed to the offspring
• There are two types of cells, Le prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

1.2 Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells

Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Prokaryotic cell
• The prokaryotes are a group of organisms that lack a cell
nucleus
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Characteristics Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Group of organisms
where such cells are
found
Range of size
Bacteria Algae, fungi, protozoa, plants
and animals
Usually extremely small, 0.5- Usually larger cells, 10-
10um in diameter 100um in diameter

Form Unicellular Multicellular

Evolutionary origin 3.5 thousand million ago 1.2 thousand million ago

Cell division Binary fission Mitosis, meiosis

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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Characteristics Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Genetic material DNA is circular, no true DNA is linear and contained
nucleus DNA is naked not ass nucleus
with protein
Protein synthesis 70S ribosomes, no ER 80S ribosomes attched to ER

Organelles Few organelles, none are Many organelles, enveloped

surround by envelope bound organelles

Cell wall Rigid and contain Cell wall of green plant,

polysaccharide with amino cellulose strengthen in plant
acid wall, chitin in fungal, none in
animals.
Flagella Simple, lacking microtubules, Complex, 9+2 arrangement
20nm diameter microtubules, 200nm
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Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Characteristics Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Respiration Mesosomes in bacteria, except Mitochondria for aerobic
cytoplasmic membrane in blue respiration.
green bacteria.
Photosynthesis No chloroplast Chloroplast present

Nitrogen fixation Some have the ability None have the ability

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Eukaryotic cell
•all types of cells except bacteria and blue-green algae

•they have two important characteristics that differentiates them from

prokaryotes;
i) Presence of nucleus with two (double) membranes
ii) Presence of organelles with membranes.

•Organelles with membranes compartmentalized the cytoplasm.

•Advantages of compartmentalization are;

i) Each compartment has its own unique structure and content
ii) Membrane enables storage of energy
iii) Membrane is important as a surface for chemical reactions

• Two types of eukaryotic cells i.e animal cell and plant cell
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

1.3 Animal cell and plant cell

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Animal Cell
•Structures that can be seen under the light microscope
are cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus and nucleolus.
•Under the electron microscope, other organelles can
be seen clearly.
Plant Cell
•Structures that can be seen under-the light microscope
are cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus,
nucleolus and chloroplasts.
•Under the electron microscope, other organelles can
be seen clearly.
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Plants cell/tissues
a) Meristem

Structure: small, roughly spherical, has thin cell wall, big nucleus,
small vacuole and a lot of cytoplasm. No intercellular air spaces
between cells.
Function: Cells that retain the ability to undergo mitotic cell
division

Location: Usually at the root tips or apex for growth and elongation.
Also at the sides of roots and stems for increase in girth.
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Plants cell/tissues
b) Parenchyma (pg. 9)
Structure: roughly spherical, thin cell wall consisting of cellulose,
big vacuole, thin layer of cytoplasm and a lot of intercellular air
spaces.
• Modified parenchyma (pg. 9)
• A) epidermis
- protection from desiccation and infection
- Elongated and flattened cell (living)
- Wall : cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses,
covering of cutin

• B)mesophyll
- Undergo photosynthesis
(contains chloroplast)
- Living cell
- Wall : cellulose, pectins, and hemicelluloses
- Cell shape : roughly spherical, irregular (spongy) or column-shaped (palisade)
depending on location
• C) endodermis
- Selective barrier to movement of water
and mineral salt (between cortex & xylem) in
root
- Living cell
- Wall : cellulose, pectins and hemicellulouses,
and deposits of suberin

• D) pericycle
• - in root it retains meristematic activity
producing lateral roots and contributing
to secondary growth if this occur.
- living cell
- wall : cellulose, pectins and hemicelluloses.
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Plants cell/tissues
c) Collenchyma
Structure: Elongated, polygonal with tapering ends with uneven
thickness of cell wall at the corners.
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Plants cell/tissues
d) Sclerenchyma

Structure: 2 types;
i) Fibers - elongated with tapering end, small lumen and pits
in the cell wall
ii) Sclereids - roughly spherical or has irregular shape and
pits in the cell wall .. The gritty texture of pears is caused by
groups of sclereids (often called "stone cells") that are
embedded in the parenchyma tissue of the fruit's flesh.
Chapter 1: Cell structures and organelles

Plants cell/tissues
e) Xylem

Structure: 2 types;

i) Tracheids- elongated, tubular cell with tapering ends, possess pits

ii) Vessel elements- cylindrical in shape, shorter and wider than
tracheids vessel elements cells are stacked one on top the other to
form a tube i.e xylem vessel.
Water moves vertically through the pore at the end of
cell or through the pits in the cell wall.
i- xylem tracheids

ii – xylem vessel
element
 Plants cell/tissues
f) Phloem
Structure: 2 types;

i) Sieve tube elements- elongated, thin cell wall, no secondary cell

wall, posseed cytoplasm and other organelles but no nucleus. At the
end of the sieve elements are sieve plates with cytoplasmic strands
running through to neighbouring cells.
- sieve elements cells are stacked one on top of the other to form a
tube i.e sieve tube
organic solutes can move up or down or sideways to different parts
of the plant
ii) Companion cells- specialized parenchyma cell with nucleus,
cytoplasm and organelles.
 Dicotyledonous stem

monocotyledonous stem
dicotyledonous root

monocotyledonous root
 Animal cell/tissues

•multicellular animals are made up of a number of different types

of cell.
•it made the organism more effective in carrying out different
activities as different cells are specialized to carry out different
functions.

•Cell – tissues – organs – systems

Animal tissues have 4 types 1. epithelium

2. connective
3. muscle
4. nerve
 Animal cell/tissues
1. Epithelium

•covers the outer layer of the skin and all surfaces inside the
body, general characteristics
i) cells are arranged close to each other forming a
continuous layer .
ii) there are two surfaces, one exposed and the other are
attached to the basement membrane.
its importants
Function :
i) for protection, secretion and as sense organs.
ii) controls the exchange of materials between different
part of the organisms and the environment.
 Animal cell/tissues
a) Simple
•squamous, cuboidal and columnar
i) Simple squamous epithelium
flat cell, disc shaped nucleus, little cytoplasm
in alveolus and capillary blood vessel
function in providing a thin layer across which
diffusion can occur
ii) Simple cuboidal epithelium
cell is cube-shaped, central spherical nucleus
lines the kidney tubule and many exocrine
glands/ducts.
Function in secretion and absorption as cells
are rich in specific transport
channels
 Animal cell/tissues
iii) Simple columnar epithelium
•cells tall and narrow with nucleus at the basal end.
•Possess a lot of Golgi apparatus and might have cilia, microvillus
or form goblet cells which produce mucus.
•Lines the digestive and respiratory system
•Function in secretion, absorption, protection and production of
mucus
 Animal cell/tissues
b) Stratified
• There are squamous, cuboidal and columnar
i) Stratified squamous epithelium
- a few layers of cell whereby the lower layer will replace the
old and worn- out cells of the upper layer
- found in the skin, mouth cavity and vagina
- function in protection and in cell replacement
ii) Stratified cuboidal epithelium
- 2-3 layers of cuboid-shaped cells
- found on the surface of the exocrine glands/ ducts.
iii) Stratified columnar epithelium
- 2-3 layers of cells, with cells at the topmost layer shaped like
a column
- found in the pharynx, larynx, mammary glands and salivary
glands
 Animal cell/tissues
c) Pseudostratified

•columnar shaped cells of varying

heights, all cells are attached to
the basement
•membrane but not all are exposed
to the surface
•may be ciliated, have microvillus
or glands.
•found in certain parts of the
respiratory tract and secretory
duct
o functions in secretion, protection
and transport of mucus.
 Animal cell/tissues
2. Connective tissue
made up of three components;
i) Cells - usually there are a number of cells in one type of
connective tissues.
ii) Matrix - secreted by the connective cells. Can exists in
the form of liquid, semi-liquid or solid .
iii) Fibers - found in the matrix and produced by the
connective cells.
- Usually there are 3 types of fibers
~ collagen - strong and not easily bent
~ elastic - easily stretched
~ reticulate - fine and branching, therefore acts as a
supporting net.
 Animal cell/tissues
a) Bone Tissue

• Consists of a hard and rigid matrix made up

of calcium phosphate and collagen fibers.
• Matrix consists of numerous cylinders
called the Haversian system. Each cylinder
is made up of concentric layers called the
lamella.
• Between the lamella are numerous lacunae
containing osteocytes (bone cells) which
secrete the matrix.
 Animal cell/tissues
• There is a harvesian canal in the middle of the haversian system
and it contain nerve and blood capillaries to supply the osteocytes
with nutrients etc,
• Osteocytes are connected to each other through cytoplasmic
strands in canaliculi.
• "Volkmann' s canal connects the harvesian systems.
• Function in support and protection, source of Ca + and place for
muscle attachment.
Volksmann’s Canal
 Animal cell/tissues
b) Cartilage Tissue

• Possess a light bluish matrix called chondrin (made of

protein- polysaccharides). Chondrin are strong and elastic.
• Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) located in the matrix lacunae,
secrete the chondrin.
• Chondrin does not have blood vessels, nerves or lymphatic
vessels.
• Nutrient supply comes from the perichondrion outside the
cartilage and it diffuses through the chondrin into the
chondrocytes.
 Animal cell/tissues
• chondrin have collagen fibers to add strength of the cartilage
• Eg. Hyaline cartilage
found in the C-shaped rings of the trachea, ear, nose and at
the end of long bones
function in support, shock absorption and to reduce friction
between bones .
 Animal cell/tissues
c) Blood Tissue
• made up of;
i) Plasma
-about 45% of the blood volume
-made up of water (90%), plasma protein
-of excretion, mineral salts and hormones
ii) Blood cells
-Red Blood cells (erythrocytes)
-White blood cells (leucocytes)
-Platelets (thrombocytes)
iii) Platelets
-shape like a disc, diameter 1-2J.lm and 3-5 hundred
thousand/ mm:' blood
-no nucleus, cytoplasm does not have granules
-function in blood clotting
 Animal cell/tissues
Blood cells consists of:

i) Erythrocytes
• 5 million/ mm3 of blood and have a lifespan of 120 days
they are circular, biconcave discs with a diameter of 7nm, no
nucleus
• possess haemoglobin and function in transporting O2 and
CO2

ii) Leucocytes
• 5-9 thousand/mm3 blood
• function in the protection of the body. There are 2 types;
 Animal cell/tissues
Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils

Agranulocytes
Monocyte
Lymphocytes
Animal cells / tissues

Ill) Muscle Tissue

• there are 3 types of muscles
a) Striated muscles (voluntary/ skeletal)
• made up of hundred of cells or muscle fibers shaped like a
cylinder, arranged parallel to each other and has a diameter of
50nm.
• Each muscle fiber has many nucleuses at its sides and surrounded
by cytoplasm called sarcoplasma and enveloped by a membrane
called sarcolemma.
• Muscle fibers have a lot of myofibrils with a series of light and
dark bands.
 Animal cells / tissues
• Myofibrils are made up of 2 types of proteins, actin (thin
filaments) and myosin (thick filaments).
• found in the diaphragm, abdominal wall and muscles used for
movements.
b) Smooth (involuntary/ unstriated)
• No light and dark striation
• Spindle-shaped cells with one nucleus at the centre
• Involuntary and rhythmic movement
• Found in digestive tracts, blood vessels and urinogenital system
 Animal cells / tissues

c) Cardiac (heart)
• Made up of short cells or fibres, cylindrical-shaped, and joined
end-to-end through intercalated discs.
• The fibres are branched, nucleus in the middle and presence of
sarcolemma and sarcoplasm.
• Myofibrils can be seen to have light and dark bands
• Only found in the heart and it is myogenic in nature
 Animal cells / tissues

IV) Nerve Tissue

• Made up of neurons and neuroglia cells
i) Neuron
 contain cytoplasm, nucleus, nissl granules (for
protein synthesis) etc.
 possess dendrites that function in sending
impulses to the cell body
 there is a long axon which function to send
impulse out of the cell body. Axon terminals end
with structures called synapse.
 Animal cells / tissues

 There is myelin sheath formed by the schwann cell

enclosing the axon except at the Ranvier nodes.
 Neurilemma forms the outer layer of the myelin sheath.
 Schwann cells which wrap themselves around neurons
forming concentric layers called the myelin sheath.
 Animal cells / tissues

ii) Neuroglial cells

 supporting cells surrounding the neurons
 non-excitable and do not conduct impulse
 play a supportive and protective role to the neurons
THE END CHPTER 1