FAJAR SUSANTO, S.S.,M.

PD
• Segmental units of phonological analysis
– Phonemes
– Allophones
• Syllables are suprasegmental units (above the
segment)
• A syllable consists of a sonorous element and
its associated non-syllabic (less sonorous)
segments
– Vowels are the most sonorous sounds
– Syllables usually have a vowel nucleus at their
core
– Less sonorous sounds may appear on either side
of a nucleus.
• A syllable is the composition of segments
that are governed by language
constraints and consist of a sonorous
element and less sonorous elements
(non-syllabic).
• A syllable is a unit of sound consisting of
a vowel and optional consonants before
or after the vowel
• A syllable consists of a sonorous element and
non-syllabic (less sonorous) segments.
• Syllables usually have a vowel nucleus at
their core and less sonorous sounds may
appear on either side of a nucleus.
• For example: telegraph, accident
– The words telegraph [tɛ.lɛ.græf]and accident
[æk.sə.dənt] have three syllables
• A syllable consists of an onset (beginning)
and a rhyme.
• Rhyme consists of the nucleus or syllable
core, and a coda.
• For example:
σ
Onset Rhyme

Nucleus Coda

S p r ı n t
• Onset is the part of a syllable (one or more
consonants) before the vowel
• Rhyme is the part of a syllable containing the
vowel (nucleus) plus any following
consonant(s), described as coda.
– Rhyme consists of nucleus (a vowel) and coda
(one or more consonants)
• Coda is part of a syllable (one or more
consonants) after the vowel.
1. Syllable nuclei usually consist of
one vowel (V)
2. Sylllables usually begin with onsets
3. Syllables often end with codas (Co)
4. Onsets and codas usually consist of
one consonant (C)
• Syllables have the most common
types found in languages
throughout the world. The shapes
are CV and CVC.
• These general tendencies are not
absolute laws, and language may
violate them.
• When a language violates the universal
tendencies, the types of syllables are
governed by other constraints on the shapes
of the subsyllabic units, O, N, and Co.
• These constraints govern the phonological
shape of consonant sequences in onsets.
• Phonotactics is the constraints on the
permissible arrangement of sounds in a
language.
• Phonotactics as the set of constraints on how sequences of
segments pattern is obviously part of every speaker’s
phonological knowledge.
– Know that certain words coming from other languages sound
unusual.
– Adjust the segment sequences of these words to conform with
the pronunciation requirements of their own language
– For example: the Russian word vprog is not English word, so the
English speakers would pronounce the word as [fəprᴐk] or
[prᴐk] in order to adjust the impermissible sequence /fpr/ to a
permissible English onset.
• These constraints operate on a unit that is larger than the
single segment or phoneme, the basic structure of that
larger phonological unit called the syllable.
• Patterns of permissibility vary in terms of
filling these constituents of the syllable.
– For example:
• In some languages, like Arabic, every syllable must have
an onset, if a word without an onset in one syllable is
borrowed from another language, for instance, a glottal
stop [?] will be inserted to meet that requirement.
• Conversely, in Hawaiian, no codas are allowed, so that
coda consonants in loanwords will be deleted
• Phonotactics constraints in English are patterns that are
allowed as the permissible syllable structure of English
• These restrictions are known as phonotactics constraints
– English allows both onsets and codas
– English allows clusters of two or three consonants in both
onsets and codas.
• Some restrictions on the composition of clusters
– /ŋ/ does not appear in onsets
– /v, z, ᴣ, ð/ do not form part of onset clusters
– /t, d, θ/ plus /l/ do not form permissible onset clusters
– /h/ does not appear in codas
– /lg/ is not a permissible coda cluster.
• English is a language that allows onsets to
contain more than one consonants
– English permits syllables that are more complex
than those found in many languages
– That’s why there are very strict phonotactics
constraints on the shapes of English onsets.
– For example:
• The possible syllable-initial consonant sequences of
English contain a voiceless stop consonant.
Table Initial consonant clusters in English containing a voiceless stop
3.20
Labial + sonorant Coronal + sonorant Velar + sonorant

[pl] Please [tl] ------- [kl] Clean

[pr] Proud [tr] Trade [kr] Cream

[pw] ------- [tw] Twin [kw] Queen

[pj] Pure [tj] Tune (British) [kj] Cute

[spl] Splat [stl] ------- [skl] Sclerosis

[spr] Spring [str] Strip [skr] Scrap

[spw] ------- [stw] ------- [skw] Squeak

[spj] spew [stj] stew [skj] skewer

• Possible syllable-initial consonant
sequences of English onsets
– The first segment of a word-initial three-consonant
cluster in English is always s (voiceless fricative)
– The second consonant in the series is always a
voiceless stop, i.e., p, t, and k
– The third is either a liquid or a glide
p (l)
σ [s t r
k (w)
j
• An important observation about types of
onsets that are allowed in English is that the
consonant combinations are not random:
1. The consonant combinations are dependent
primarily on the manners of articulation of
the consonants
2. Sonorant consonants (here liquids and glides)
are closer to nucleus than are stops and
fricatives
• Both these phonotactic constraints reflect
universal restrictions on consonant
combinations, and are found in other
languanges that allow complex onsets.
• Accidental gaps correspond to the possible forms
that do not violate any constraints on onset
combinations in English, but the forms are non-
existent word, i.e., snool, splick, sklop, flis, trok, and
krif.
• Occasionally, an accidental gap will be filled by the
invention of a new word, for example kodak that its
shape conforms to the phonotactic constraints of
English.
• Borrowed words such as perestroika (Russian), taco
(Spanish), Zen (Japanese) are readily accepted by
English speakers, their syllable structures conform to
the phonotactic patterns of English.
• Systematic gaps are the occurring syllable
structures of a language that result not by
accident, but from the exclusion of certain
sequences.
• Certain onset like /bz/, /pt/, and /fp/ are systematic
gaps in the pattern of English.
• These forms are unacceptable to English
speakers and never occur in spoken English.
• These forms can be seen in the case of borrowing
from other languages into English.
• The words psychology, psoriasis, and pterodactyl
are from Greek, but all of the impermissible-initial
clusters *ps, and *pt have been reduced to s and t
in onset of spoken English.
• There are other words that violate
phonotactic constraints but that
nonetheless do commonly appear in
spoken English, such as pueblo, and
Tlingit
 What we have learned about phonotactic constraint is
universal and part of human linguistic knowledge, in
which this phonotactic, for example an onset pl, can
be found in many languages beside English, while the
onset lp is never found
 Language-specific phonotactic hold true for individual
languages and each language has its own set of
restrictions on the phonological shapes of its syllable
constituents
 For example, spekers of Russian are quite accustomed to
pronouncing onset sequences such as ps-, fsl-, and mgl-
which are not found in English.
 The process for setting up syllables in a given language
involves three steps and word-level construction.
1. Nucleus-formation. This step reflects the universal
tendency for syllables to have a sonorant core.
2. Onset-formation. This step reflects the tendency for
syllables to have onsets,
3. Coda-formation. This step reflects the tendency for
syllables to have codas
4. Word-level construction. This step ensures that
syllables are incorporated into word-level units.
Step a Nucleus-formation
since the syllable nucleus is the only obligatory
constituent of a syllable, it is constructed first.
Each vowel segment in a word makes up a
syllabic nucleus.
To represent this, link a vowel to an N above it
by drawing an association line. Above each
nucleus symbol, place an R
σ σ
R R

N N

εkstrim
 Step b Onset-formation
The longest sequence of consonants to the left of
each nucleus that does not violate the phonotactic
constraints of the language in question is the onset
of the syllable.
Link these consonants to an O and join it to the
same syllable as the vowel to the right.
Note that there is no onset in the first syllable of
extreme.
σ σ
R R

N ON

εkstrim
 Step c Coda-formation
Any remaining unassociated consonants to the
right of each nucleus form the coda, and are linked
to a Co above them.
This Co is associated with the syllable nucleus to
its left in the rhyme.
A syllable with a coda is called a closed syllable,
while a syllable without a coda is called open

σ σ
R R

NCo O N Co

εkstrim
 Step d Word-level Construction
Syllable that make up a single form (usually a
word) branch out from the representation Wd.
This step is frequently omitted from phonological
representations to save space; the complete
representation is understood even when Wd is not
written out.
Wd
σ σ
R R

NCo O N Co

εkstrim
FAJAR SUSANTO, S.S.,M.PD
 Aspiration in English
• The voiceless stops of English each have an
aspirated an unaspirated allophone.
• The distribution of aspiration can be generally
by referring to syllable structure, by referring to
subsyllabic units i.e. onset and coda.
• English voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-
initially (aspiration in English is predictable)
• No aspirations appear in a syllable onset
preceded by s.
• No aspirations appear in a coda.
Table 3.23 Distribution of aspirated stops in English

Aspirated stops Unaspirated stops

• syllable- initially Elsewhere

• in a syllable onset preceded by s

(whether another C follows or not)
• in coda
Table 3.22 English aspiration

A B C

[pʰæn] Pan [spæn] Span [slæp] Slap

[pʰejn] Pain [spejn] Spain [slɑt] Slot

[pʰowk] Poke [spowk] Spoke [blɑk] Block

[tʰown] Tone [stown] Stone

[kʰin] Kin [skin] Skin

[pʰərspajr] Perspire [splæt] Splat

[tʰəmejtow] Tomato [ʌpset] Upset

[kʰənu] Canoe

[əpʰɑn] Upon

[ətʰæk] Attack

[tʰəkʰilə] Tequila
Phonetic Length in English Vowels
• Phonetic length is whether a vowel is pronounced
long or short.
• Phonetic length is predictable in English vowels.
– English vowels are shorter before voiceless consonants,
before sonorant consonants, and in word-final position.
– English vowels are longer before voiced non-sonorant
consonants as long as these non-sonorant consonants are
in coda-position in the same syllable.
• English vowels are long when followed by a voiced obstruent in coda-
position of the same syllable.
Table 3.24 Phonetic length in English: long vowel before voiced coda consonants

A B

Bad [bæ:d] Bat [bæt]

Abe [e:jb] Ape [ejp]

Phase [fe:jz] Face [fejs]

Leave [li:v] Leaf [lif]

Tag [tʰæ:g] Tack [tæk]

brogue [bro:wg] Broke [brwk]

Tame [tʰejm]

Meal [mil]

Soar [sor]

show [ʃow]
• If vowels are followed by non-sonorant
consonants that are onsets of the
following syllable, the vowels are short.

Table 3.25 Short vowels before voiced onset consonants in English

Obey [ow.bej] /obe/

Redo [ri.du] /ridu/

Regard [ri.gard] /rigard/

Ogre [ow.gər] /ogər/

• The structure of individual syllables
plays a role in determining which
vowel is stressed.
– Stressing of the words occur on the
penultimate syllable and the
antepenultimate syllable
– English nouns are stressed on the
penultimate syllable when it is heavy;
otherwise, they are stressed on the
antepenultimate syllable.
 Stress on the penultimate syllable
• The stressed penultimate syllable has a coda
(see column A)
• Their nucleus contains a tense vowel (see
column B) or vowel-glide sequence,
represented as branching.
– Tense vowels have the same effect on stress
assignment in English as closed syllables.
– Both closed syllables and syllables with two
elements in the nucleus are referred to as
heavy syllables.
Stress on the antepenultimate syllable
• In the column C (see your book table 3.26),
these characteristics are not found or the
penultimate are not heavy:
– In column C are all stressed on the third syllable
from the end of the word (antepenultimate
syllable)
• English nouns are stressed on the penultimate
syllable when it is heavy; otherwise, they are
stressed on the antepenultimate syllable.
Table 3.26 English Noun Stress
A B C
Agenda [əjəndə] Aroma [ərowmə] Cinema [sınəmə]

Consensus [kənsensəs] Manitoba [manıtowba] Cabinet [kæbənət]

Appendix [əpendıks] Horizon [həraızən] Venison [venəsən]

Synopsis [sınəpsıs] Eliza [ılizə] America [əmerikə]

Veranda [vərænda] Minnesota [mınəsowta] Javelin [dʒævələn]

Thank you