the realm of cognition. These processes operate by manipulating information that comes into the mind. When the mind receives new information, it does two things: codes it as 'new' information or retrieves it from memory as 'not new' information. For this reason, cognition also means knowing. There are three basic steps to the cognition or thinking process: perception, selective attention, and memory. 1. Piaget's cognitive developmental theory, 2. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, and 3. Information-processing theory Piaget (1952) defined a schema as: "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning." Assimilation – Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation. Accommodation – This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation. Equilibration – This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation). Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it. Piaget's (1936) states that children construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum. Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of 'readiness' is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development. According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered. Within the classroom learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. 1. Through interaction with others, and then integrated into the individual’s mental structure. Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.(Vygotsky, 1978)
2. The potential for cognitive development is
limited to a "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). Vygotsky believed that language was the most important tool that human could utilize. Vygotsky's focus on language as a part of cognitive development was based on the idea that at the beginning of a child's life, language and thought begin as separate systems within a child's brain. Educational theorists have specifically focussed on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory due to the recognition of the fundamental functions played by social cultural factors and influences in the processes of learning and development. According to the sociocultural theory, learning can be passed on to individuals using three approaches, namely imitative learning, instructed learning and collaborative learning. In brief, imitative learning occurs when the child tries to copy or imitate another individual within the social context, while instructed learning occurs when a child recalls the instructions or directions given by an instructor and then puts them into practice. Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. focuses on the idea that humans process the information they receive from the environment, in the manner of a computer, rather than merely responding to stimuli. The student's brain brings information in, manipulates it, and stores it ready for future use – this is the learning aspect. Information-processing theory has definite educational implications for students with learning and behavior problems. Teachers with a greater understanding of the theory and how it is formed to, select learning strategies in order to improve the retention and retrieval of learning.
Investigating Moroccan University Students Difficulties in Dealing With Concrete and Abstract Prepositions: The Case of The English Department in The School of Arts and Humanities, Meknes, Morocco