7 Application

6 Presentation COMPUTER NETWORKS

5 Session OSI MODEL:

4 Transport
Physical Layer
Data Link
3 Network Network
2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport INTRODUCTION
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application NETWORK GOALS

6 Presentation The two main benefits of networking computers are…

Communications
5 Session Information can be distributed very quickly, such as
email and video conferencing.
4 Transport
Saving Money
Resources such as information, software, and
3 Network hardware can be shared.

2 Data Link CPUs and hard disks can be pooled together to

create a more powerful machine.

1 Physical
7 Application APPLICATIONS

6 Presentation A lot of things we take for granted are the result of

computer networks.

5 Session • Email
• Chat
4 Transport • Web sites
• Sharing of documents and pictures
• Accessing a centralized database of information
3 Network • Mobile workers

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application NETWORK STRUCTURE

6 Presentation The subnet interconnects hosts.

Subnet
5 Session Carries messages from host to host. It is made up
of telecommunication lines (i.e. circuits, channels,
4 Transport trunks) and switching elements (i.e. IMPs, routers).

Hosts
3 Network End user machines or computers.

2 Data Link Q: Is the host part of the subnet?

1 Physical
7 Application NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

6 Presentation A set of layers and protocols is called the network

architecture.

5 Session 1. Protocol Hierarchies

Networks are organized as layers to reduce design
4 Transport complexity. Each layer offers services to the higher
layers. Between adjacent layers is an interface.
3 Network Services – connection oriented and
connectionless.
2 Data Link Interface – defines which primitives and services
the lower layer will offer to the upper layer.

1 Physical Primitives – operations such as request, indicate,

response, confirm.
7 Application NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

6 Presentation 2. Design Issues for the Layers

• Mechanism for connection establishment
• Rules for data transfer
5 Session
• Error control
• Fast sender swamping a slow receiver
4 Transport • Inability of processes to accept long messages
• Routing in the case of multiple paths
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation The Open Systems Interconnection is the model

developed by the International Standards Organization.

5 Session Benefits
• Interconnection of different systems (open)
4 Transport • Not limited to a single vendor solution

Negative Aspect
3 Network
• Systems might be less secure
• Systems might be less stable
2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 1. Physical Layer

a) Convert the logical 1’s and 0’s coming from
layer 2 into electrical signals.
5 Session
b) Transmission of the electrical signals over a
communication channel.
4 Transport
Main topics:
3 Network • Transmission mediums
• Encoding
2 Data Link • Modulation
• RS232 and RS422 standards
• Repeaters
1 Physical • Hubs (multi-port repeater)
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 2. Data Link Layer

a) Error control to compensate for the
imperfections of the physical layer.
5 Session
b) Flow control to keep a fast sender from
swamping a slow receiver.
4 Transport
Main topics:
3 Network • Framing methods
• Error detection and correction methods
2 Data Link • Flow control
• Frame format
• IEEE LAN standards
1 Physical • Bridges
• Switches (multi-port bridges)
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 3. Network Layer

a) Controls the operation of the subnet.
5 Session b) Routing packets from source to destination.
c) Logical addressing.
4 Transport
Main topics:

3 Network • Internetworking
• Routing algorithms
• Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
2 Data Link • Routers

1 Physical
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 4. Transport Layer

a) Provides additional Quality of Service.
5 Session b) Heart of the OSI model.

Main topics:
4 Transport
• Connection-oriented and connectionless services
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
3 Network • User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 5. Session Layer

a) Allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
5 Session
b) One of the services is managing dialogue
control.
4 Transport
c) Token management.

3 Network d) Synchronization.

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 6. Presentation Layer

a) Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information.
5 Session
b) Preserves the meaning of the information.
4 Transport c) Data compression.
d) Data encryption.
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 7. Application Layer

a) Provides protocols that are commonly needed.
5 Session
Main topics:
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
4 Transport • HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
3 Network • Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Network File System (NFS)
• Telnet
2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation Each layer provides services to the layer above it.

1. Terminologies
5 Session
Entities – active elements in each layer (e.g.
process, intelligent I/O chip).
4 Transport Peer Entities – entities in the same layer on
different machines.
3 Network Service Provider – Layer N.
Service User – Layer N + 1.
2 Data Link
Service Access Points – places where layer N + 1
can access services offered by layer N.
1 Physical
7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation 2. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless

Connection-Oriented – before data is sent, the
service from the sending computer must establish
5 Session
a connection with the receiving computer.

4 Transport Connectionless – data can be sent at any time by

the service from the sending computer.
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation 3. Service Primitives

Request – entity wants the service to do some
work
5 Session
Indicate – entity is to be informed about an event
4 Transport Response – entity responds to an event
Confirm – entity is to be informed about its request
3 Network
Sending Computer Receiving Computer

2 Data Link 4 Transport 4 Transport

1. request 4. confirm 2. indicate 3. response

1 Physical
3 Network 3 Network
7 Application BANDWIDTH

6 Presentation The capacity of the medium to transmit data.

Analog Bandwidth
5 Session
• Measurement is in Hertz (Hz) or cycles/sec.

4 Transport Digital Bandwidth

• Measurement is in bits per second (bps).
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
 Hello

7 Application AH Hello

6 Presentation PH AH Hello

5 Session SH PH AH Hello

4 Transport TH SH PH AH Hello

3 Network NH TH SH PH AH Hello

2 Data Link DH NH TH SH PH AH Hello DT

1 Physical Bits
7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport PHYSICAL LAYER

3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application OVERVIEW

6 Presentation 1. Signals
• Fourier analysis
• Maximum data rate of a channel
5 Session 2. Transmission Media
• Guided and Unguided
4 Transport 3. Analog Transmission
• Modulation
• Modems
3 Network • RS-232, RS-422
4. Digital Transmission
2 Data Link • Encoding schemes
• Repeaters and hubs
5. Transmission and Switching
1 Physical • Multiplexing (FDM and TDM)
• Circuit vs. packet switching
7 Application SIGNALS

6 Presentation 1. Fourier Analysis

a) All signals can be represented mathematically.
5 Session b) A periodic function can be constructed by adding
a number of sine and cosine functions.
4 Transport Fundamental frequency – where f = 1/T
Harmonics – integer multiples of the fundamental
3 Network frequency
Baud – number of signal level changes per second
2 Data Link
Q: Is baud and data rate different terms?
1 Physical
Q: Is 1 baud equal to 1bps?
7 Application SIGNALS

6 Presentation 2. Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Nyquist
Maximum data rate = 2H log2V (bits/sec)
5 Session
H = line bandwidth
V = a signal with V discrete levels
4 Transport
Example:
A noiseless 3kHz channel cannot transmit binary (2
3 Network
level) signals at a rate faster than 6000bps
2(3k) log22 = 6000bps
2 Data Link
logAV = (1 / ln A) ln V
1 Physical
7 Application SIGNALS

6 Presentation Shannon
Maximum data rate (bits/sec) = H log2(1+ PS/PN)
H = line bandwidth
5 Session PS = signal strength in watts
PN = noise strength in watts
4 Transport
Example:
A 3kHz channel with a noise ratio of 30dB
3 Network (PS/PN = 1000) cannot transmit at a rate faster
than 30,000bps
2 Data Link (3k) log2(1001) = 30,000bps

Note: SNR = 10log10(PS/PN)

1 Physical
7 Application SIGNALS

6 Presentation 3. Attenuation vs. Amplification

Attenuation
The signal received is weaker than the signal sent.
5 Session
Attenuation (dB) = 10log10(P1/P2)
4 Transport Amplification
The signal received is stronger than the signal
3 Network sent.
Amplification (dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
2 Data Link
Note:
P1 = transmitted signal power in watts
1 Physical P2 = received signal power in watts

Q: If the result of the attenuation formula is negative, what

happened to the signal?
7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 1. Guided
Data is sent via a wire or optical cable.
5 Session Twisted Pair
Two copper wires are twisted together to reduce
the effect of crosstalk noise. (e.g. Cat5, UTP, STP)
4 Transport
Baseband Coaxial Cable
3 Network A 50-ohm cable used for digital transmission. Used
in 10Base2 and 10Base5.
2 Data Link Broadband Coaxial Cable
A 75-ohm cable used for analog transmission such
1 Physical as Cable TV.
7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation Fiber Optic Cables

Two general types are multimode and single mode.
5 Session In multimode, light is reflected internally. Light
source is an LED.
4 Transport

3 Network In single mode, the light propagates in a straight

line. Light source come from expensive laser
diodes. Faster and longer distances as compared
2 Data Link to multimode.

1 Physical
* Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap (higher security)
and are normally used for backbone cabling.
7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 2. Unguided
Data is sent through the air.
5 Session
Line-of-sight
Transmitter and receiver must “see” each other,
4 Transport such as a terrestrial microwave system.

Communication Satellites
3 Network
A big microwave repeater in the sky. Data is
broadcasted, and can be “pirated.”
2 Data Link
Radio
Term used to include all frequency bands, such as
1 Physical
FM, UHF, and VHF television.
7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 1. Modulation
Modulating a sine wave carrier to convey data.
5 Session
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude is increased/decreased while frequency
4 Transport remains constant.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

3 Network
Frequency is increased/decreased while amplitude
remains constant.
2 Data Link
Phase Modulation
Wave is shifted, while amplitude and frequency
1 Physical
remains constant.
7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 2. Modems
A device that accepts digital signals and outputs a
modulated carrier wave, and vice versa.
5 Session
It is used to interconnect the digital computer to the
4 Transport analog telephone network.

* Modems for PC’s can be external or internal.

3 Network * Nokia makes modems for leased line connections.

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 3. RS-232 and RS-449

Two well known physical layer standards.
5 Session
RS-232
• 20 kbps
4 Transport • Cables up to 15 meters
• Unbalanced transmission (common ground)
3 Network
RS-422
2 Data Link • 2 Mbps at 60 meters
• 1 Mbps at 100 meters
• Balanced transmission (a pair of wires for Tx, Rx)
1 Physical
7 Application DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 1. Encoding Schemes

Converting logical data into electrical signals
suitable for transmission.
5 Session
Manchester
4 Transport • Mid bit transition for clock synchronization and
data
• Logic 0 = high to low transition
3 Network • Logic 1 = low to high transition

2 Data Link Differential Manchester

• Mid bit transition for clock synchronization only
1 Physical • Logic 0 = transition at the beginning of each bit
period
• Logic 1 = no transition at the beginning of each
bit period
7 Application DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 2. Repeaters and Hubs

These are physical layer devices.
5 Session Repeaters
• Restores the strength of an attenuated signal.
4 Transport • Used to increase the transmission distance.
• Does not filter data traffic.
3 Network Hubs
• Multi-port repeater.
2 Data Link • Interconnects several computers.
• Does not filter data traffic.
1 Physical

* Picture from 3com.com

7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport NETWORK LAYER

3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical
7 Application OVERVIEW

6 Presentation 1. Routing Algorithms

• Shortest Path
• Flooding
5 Session • Flow-based
• Distance Vector
4 Transport • Link State
• Hierarchical
• Broadcast
3 Network • Multicast
• Routing for Mobile Hosts
2 Data Link 2. Congestion control
3. IP Addressing
4. Routers
1 Physical
7 Application ROUTING ALGORITHMS

6 Presentation 1. Shortest Path

B(A,2) C(B,3)
5 Session B 1 C
2
4 Transport A(-,-) 3 2 3
D(E,3)
2
A F(E,4)
3 Network D
1
1 F
E(A,2) 2
2 Data Link 2
E
1 Physical
A–E–D–F
A – E – F is the answer.
7 Application ROUTING ALGORITHMS

6 Presentation 2. Flooding

Packet to IMP C
5 Session Packet IMP Packet to IMP D
4 Transport B Packet to IMP E

To prevent packets from circulating indefinitely, a

3 Network packet has a hop counter. Every time a packet arrives
at an IMP, the hop counter is decrease by 1. Once the
2 Data Link hop counter of a packet reaches 0, the packet is
discarded.

1 Physical
7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Format
xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
where x is either 0 or 1
5 Session
Example 1:
4 Transport 11111111. 11111111.00000000.00000000

255.255.0.0
3 Network
Example 2:
2 Data Link 11111111. 11111111.10000000.00000000

1 Physical 255.255.192.0
 IP address classes

1st Octet Decimal 1st Octet High

Class
Range Order Bits
A 1 – 126* 0
B 128 – 191 10
C 192 – 223 110
D 224 – 239 1110
 Network/ Hosts per
1st
Octet 1stOctet Host ID Default Number Network
Class Decimal High (N=Netwo Subnet of (Usable
Range Order Bits rk, Mask Networks Addresses
H=Host) )

16,777,214
A 1 – 126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126 (27 – 2)
(224 – 2)

16,382 (214 – 65,534 (216 –

B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0
2) 2)

255.255.255. 2,097,150
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 254 (28 – 2)
0 (221– 2)

D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting

E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research

Private IP Addresses

Private Address
Class Subnet Mask
Networks Range
10.0.0.0 -
A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0
10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 - 172.16.0.0 -
B 255.240.0.0
172.31.0.0 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 -
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0
192.168.255.255
 MASK
It is called a subnet mask because
it is used to identify network
address of an IP address by
perfoming a bitwise AND operation
on the netmask. A Subnet mask is
a 32-bit number that masks an IP
address, and divides the IP address
into network address and host
address.
7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Network Address

Example 1:
5 Session IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.0.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
4 Transport
Example 2:
3 Network IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.255.0
2 Data Link Network address 180.100.7.0

Example 3:
1 Physical
IP address of computer 180.100.7.2
Mask 255.255.192.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Mask

Valid mask are contiguous 1’s from left to right.

5 Session
Examples:
4 Transport Valid
255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
3 Network
255.255.255.0

2 Data Link Invalid

255.1.0.0
255.0.255.0
1 Physical
255.255.64.0
200.255.0.0
7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Subnets
The Internet is running out of IP address. One solution
is to subnet a network address.
5 Session
This is done by borrowing host bits to be used as
4 Transport network bits.

Example:
3 Network
Class B mask 255.255.0.0
Borrowing 1 bit gives a subnet mask of 255.255.128.0
2 Data Link Borrowing 2 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.192.0
Borrowing 3 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0
Borrowing 4 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0
1 Physical
7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Example:
Given an IP address of 180.200.0.0, subnet by
borrowing 4 bits.
5 Session
Subnet mask = 255.255.240.0
4 Transport The 4 bits borrowed are value 128, 64, 32, 16. This will
create 16 sub networks, where the first and last will be
unusable.
3 Network
Sub network address:
2 Data Link 180.200.0.0
180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
1 Physical
180.200.48.0
180.200.64.0
etc…
7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation The first 3 usable sub networks are:

180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
5 Session 180.200.48.0

4 Transport For sub network 180.200.16.0, the valid IP address

are:

3 Network 180.200.16.1 to 180.200.31.254

2 Data Link Directed broadcast address is:

180.200.31.255
1 Physical
7 Application ROUTERS

6 Presentation A layer 3 device that is used to interconnect 2 or more

logical networks.

5 Session Can filter broadcast traffic, preventing broadcast traffic

from one network from reaching another network.
4 Transport

3 Network 180.200.0.0 202.5.3.0

2 Data Link

1 Physical